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SYLLABUS 



THE COURSE OF LECTURES 



MEDICAL CHEMISTRY, 



DELIVERED IN THE 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE. 



JOHN J. REESE, M.D., 



PROFESSOR OF MEDICAL CHEMISTRT. 




PHILADELPHIA: 

LINDSAY ft'BLAKISTON. 
1857. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, 

BY JOHX J. REESE, M.D., 

In the Clerk's Office of the Distriot Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



C. SHERMAN & SON, PRINTERS, 

19 St. James Street. 



xt 



TO 

THE STUDENTS OF MEDICINE 

OF PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE, 

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, 

:nd 7 
THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE. 



In preparing the following Syllabus of his Course 
of Lectures on Chemistry, the author has been actu- 
ated by an earnest desire to facilitate the labors of 
the medical student in acquiring a knowledge of 
this branch of his Profession. 

It were much to be desired that the student of 
medicine had already become familiar with the 
general details of Chemistry, before commencing 
his attendance upon the Lectures. But unfor- 
tunately, the case is too often the reverse ; and, 
from the necessity of the matter, the teacher is 
compelled to occupy time in the discussion of ele- 
mentary subjects, which otherwise, might be more 
appropriately employed. The author is fully aware 
of the difficulty experienced by the student in ob- 
taining clear and systematic ideas of this depart- 
ment of his studies, especially with his mind crowded 



Vlll PREFACE. 

with the other branches of medicine at the same 
time. He has endeavored to present his subject in 
as analytical a manner as possible, arranging the 
various topics according to their natural order, and 
dwelling more particularly on those points which 
are of greatest practical value. 

The work can only be appreciated in connection 
with the author's Lectures ; and therefore it can lay 
no claim to criticism as an independent treatise. 
It may probably prove useful to the teacher, in the 
examination of his pupils ; and by the latter, it is 
hoped, it will be found a valuable aid, both in the 
class-room, and in the study. 

Philadelphia, October, 1857. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 




PHYSICS. 






PAGE 


Properties of Matter, ..... 


13 


The Forces which act on Matter, 


14 


Physical Constitution of the Atmosphere, and of Gases in 




general, ...... 


16 


Caloric, ....... 


19 


Effects of Heat — Expansion, 


19 


Communication of Heat, .... 


21 


Conduction, . 


21 


Convection or Circulation, 


21 


Radiation, . . . . . 


21 


Liquefaction — Latent Heat, 


22 


Vaporization, ..... 


23 


Capacity for Heat — Specific Heat, 


24 


Sources of Heat, ..... 


25 


Light, . . . 


2G 


Magnetism, ....... 


27 


Electricity, ...... 


28 


Galvanism or Current Electricity, 


30 



CONTENTS. 



PAGB 

Electro-magnetism, . . . . . 32 

Animal Electricity, ..... 33 



PART II. 



INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



Laws of Combination, .... 

Chemical Nomenclature, . . . . 

Simple or Elementary Bodies [non- metallic), 

The Metals, ...... 

Salts, ...... 

Crystallization, ..... 

Classification of the Metals, 

Class I. — Order 1. The Alkaline Metals, . 

Order 2. Metals of the Alkaline Earths, 
Order 3. Metals of the Earths, . . .87 

Class II. — Order 1. Metals whose Oxides are powerful 

Bases, . . . .89 

Order 2. Metals whose Oxides are weak Bases, 

or Acids, . . . . 105 

Order 3. Metals isomorphous with Phosphorus, 109 
Order 4. Metals whose Oxides are reduced by 

Heat alone,. • . .114 



35 

36 
37 
64 
68 
69 
70 
71 
81 



PART III. 

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

General Remarks, . . . . . .124 

Analysis of Organic Bodies, . . . . 126 

Proximate Organic Principles, . . . .127 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Section 



Section 

Section 
Section 

Section 
Section 
Section 

Section 
Section 
Section 
Section 
Section 
Section 
Section 

Section 
Section 



I. Substances composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and 

Oxygen ; — the two latter being in the propor- 
tion to form water, 

II. Principles resulting from the action of Nitric 

Acid on some of the foregoing substances, . 

III. Fermentation, .... 

IV. Products of the action of Acids on Alcohol, — 

Etherification, 

V. Action of Oxygen on Alcohol, 

VI. The Kakodyle Compounds, 

VII. The Methyle Compounds, . 
Oxidation of Methylie Alcohol, 

VIII. The Amyle Compounds, . 

IX. The Benzoile Compounds, 

X. The Cinnamyle Compounds, 

XI. The Salicyle Compounds, 

XII. Organic or Vegetable Acids, 

XIII. Organic Salt Bases — Vegetable Alkalies, 

XIV. Oils and Fats, .... 
Volatile Oils, .... 

XV. Resins, and allied Bodies, . 

XVI. Organic Coloring Matters, 



128 

132 
134 

137 
140 
142 
143 
144 
147 
149 
150 
151 
152 
156 
159 
163 
164 
166 



PART IV. 



CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 



General Composition of the Animal Body, 
Section I. The Proteine Group, 
Section II. The Gelatine Group, 
Section III. The Animal Solids, 



169 
170 
173 
175 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAQE 

Section IV. The Animal Fluids, . . . 178 

The Urine in Health, . . . .178 

Section V. The Urine in Disease, . . . 183 

Section VI. Urinary Calculi, .... 184 

Biliary Calculi — Gall-stones, . . 186 

Section VII. Milk, Bile, and Blood, . . .187 

Section VIII. Chemistry of Vegetable Life, . . 189 

Chemistry of Animal Life, . . . 190 



SYLLABUS OF LECTURES- 



PART I. 
PHYSICS. 



Chemistry defined. — Belongs to the department of Physics. 

Definition of Matter. — Its theoretical constitution.— Atoms 
or molecules. — Their shape — weight, equivalent or combining 
proportional. — Elementary and compound atoms. — Illustra- 
tions of their minuteness. — All chemical reactions occur be- 
tween the atoms of bodies, not between masses. 

Properties of Matter, 

1. Gravity. — Ail matter possessed of weight. — Difference 
between the absolute weight of a body and its specific 
weight or specific gravity. — Standard of comparison for 
solids and liquids. — Standard for gases. 

Mode of ascertaining the specific gravity of solid bodies 
heavier than water.— Of solids lighter than water. — Of 
solids soluble in water. 

Mode of ascertaining the specific gravity of liquids. — The 
specific-gravity bottle. — The aerometer or hydrometer. 
2 



14 PHYSICS. 

Urinometer. — Importance of attention to the temperature 
of the liquid. 
Specific gravity of gases. — Precautions to be observed. 

2. Impenetrability. — Illustration. — Porosity dependent on the 

interstices between the molecules. — Greatest in gases ; — 
and least in solids. 

3. Indestructibility. — Matter may be made to change its forin, 

but cannot be destroyed. — Examples. 

4. Inertia. — An exterior force necessary to produce a change 

in the state of bodies. — Illustration. 

The Forces which act on Matter. 

" Force" defined. — The essential nature of forces unknown. 
Can only be recognized by their effects. — Attraction and Re- 
pulsion the great opposing forces of nature. — Illustration. — The 
nature of a body, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, depends 
upon the preponderance of one or other of these two forces. 

The force of Repulsion generally attributed to Caloric. 

The force of Attraction comprises the following divisions : 

1. Cohesion, or the attraction of aggregation. — Can only act 

between homogeneous particles, and at insensible dis- 
tances. 

2. Gravitation. — Acts at sensible distances, and between 

masses. — Examples. — Law of gravitation.— Gravitation 
the true cause of the weight of bodies, or gravity, 

3. Capillary attraction, or Capillarity. — Exists between liquids 

and solids. — Name. — The cause of the wetting of solid 
bodies in contact with certain liquids. — Examples.- — Best 
observed between liquids and fine tubes. — Law of capil- 
larity. — The nature of the liquid materially influences it. 
Illustrated in the case of a capillary tube, inserted suc- 
cessively in different liquids, — :the rise, in each case 



ATTRACTIVE FORCES. 15 

being different. — The liquid never overflows the tube. — 
Its rise is independent of its specific gravity. — Shape of 
the surface of the liquid within the tube. — Physiological 
applications.— The capillary circulation. 

4. Endostnose, or the attraction between different liquids 

through a membrane. — A modification of capillarity. — 
Conditions necessary. — Direction of the current. — In- 
fluence of the membrane. — Influence of the nature of the 
fluid. — The endosmometer. — -Proof of the existence of 
two currents. — Physiological applications: — The rise of 
the sap in vegetables ; — Absorption ; — Secretion ; — 
Lymphatic circulation, &c. — Selective power of endos- 
mose. — Great force exerted. — Illustrations. 

5. The attraction between gases, or the Diffusion of gases. 

Explanation. — Graham's "Law of Diffusion. " — His dif- 
fusion-tube. — Great importance of this law in nature. 
Applications. 

6. Chemical Attraction, or Affinity. — Defined to be "the attrac- 

tion between heterogeneous molecules, accompanied by a 
change of properties." It can only act at insensible 
distances ; that is, the molecules must be in (apparent) 
contact. — Differs from all other sorts of attraction, in 
being accompanied by a change of properties. 
Examples of the change of properties, or the effects pro- 
duced : (a) Change of form , — as when two gaseous bodies, 
hydrogen and oxygen, unite to form a liquid, — water; or 
two others, chlorohydric acid and ammonia, combine to 
form a solid, — chloride of ammonium, (b) Change of 
color •, — as exhibited in the numerous tests of the Chemist. 

(c) Change of temperature, — as shown in the heat evolved 
in the explosion of gunpowder, or the action of sulphuric 
acid on a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sugar, &c. 

(d) Change of density, (e) Change of taste, &c. 



16 PHYSICS. 



Circumstances influencing Chemical Affinity. 

1. Fluidity. — Operates by overcoming cohesion, and thereby 

promotes chemical attraction. — Illustration of dry tartaric 
acid and carbonate of soda. — Also the union of two dif- 
ferent metals in their melted state. 

2. Cohesion. — This opposes chemical attraction, as above ex- 

plained. — Effect of pulverization. 

3. Temperature. 

4. The nascent state. — Explanation and illustrations from 

vegetable and animal nature. 

5. The electrical condition. — The greatest chemical attraction 

always displayed between substances most dissimilar elec- 
trically. — Electro-positive and electro-negative bodies. 
Probability that all the attractive forces are dependent 
upon one common cause, — electricity. — Proof of the action of 
electricity in cohesion; — in capillarity; — in chemical affinity. 
Researches and Laws of Clairault and Draper. 



GASES IN GENERAL. 



The Atmosphere, like all other matter, possesses the property 
of gravity or weight. — Difficulty of realizing this fact, under 
ordinary circumstances. — The air shown to possess weight, by 
actually weighing it in a glass globe. — It is 810 times lighter 
than water, and 11,000 times lighter than mercury. — One 
hundred cubic inches, perfectly dry and pure, weigh 30,830 
grains, at 60°, and 30° Bar. (Regnault). — Being taken as 



CONSTITUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 17 

the standard of comparison for gases in general, its specific 
gravity is 1. — Other experiments to demonstrate that the 
atmosphere possesses weight: — The hand-glass; — Bladder- 
glass; — collapse of an exhausted tin box; — collapse of steam- 
boilers from sudden condensation of contained steam ; — Mag- 
denburg hemispheres ; — glass handcuffs, &c. 

Torricelli's experiment to prove the pressure of the atmo- 
sphere. — Average height of the column of mercury in a Tor- 
ricellian tube is about 30 inches. — Proof that it is the pressure 
of the atmosphere alone which sustains it. 

Law, that " the height of the column sustained is inversely 
as the density:" — Thus, mercury being about 13-6 times 
heavier than water, the pressure that would sustain a mercu- 
rial column, 30 inches in height, would support a column of 
water to the height of 13-6x30=408-0 inches, or 34 feet. 
By the same law, the whole height of the atmosphere, if it 
were of uniform density, could be shown to be 11,000 x 
30^=330,000 inches, or about 5 miles; whereas the actual 
supposed height of the atmosphere, owing to its increasing 
rarefaction, is about 45 miles. 

The amount of pressure of the atmosphere, on the surface 
of the earth is estimated at about fifteen pounds to every 
square inch. — Proof exhibited. — The pressure equal in all 
directions. 

The Barometer. — Fall of barometrical column on ascending 
a mountain. — Rise of column on descending below the surface 
of the earth. — Use of barometer in ascertaining altitudes in 
the air, or of mountains. — Correspondence between elevations 
in the atmosphere, and depressions in the barometer. — Near 
the level of the sea, a fall of one inch indicates a rise of about 
922 feet. 

Variations of the barometer at the earth's surface. — Its 
sweep. — Use as a weather-glass. 

2* 



18 PHYSICS. 

Elasticity of the Air and of Gases. 

Illustrations. — Law of Mariotte — that "the volume of a 
gas is inversely as the pressure ; the density and elastic force 
are directly as the pressure, and inversely as the volume. " 

The cause of their expansibility attributed to an inherent 
repulsive force existing in their molecules. 

The Air-pump. — Varieties. — The vacuum never perfect. 
Torricellian vacuum. — The elastic force or tension of the air is 
exactly equal to its pressure. — Shown by bursting of a thin 
glass flask outwardly, by the elastic force of the air within, 
on removal of the air from its exterior. 

The action of the water-pump dependent on atmospheric 
pressure ; — The syphon ; — Water-hammer ; — Fountain in 
vacuo. — Influence of atmospheric pressure on Respiration ; — 
on the Circulation • — on the operation of cupping. 

Condensation the reverse of rarefaction. — Nature and use 
of the Condenser. — Applications. 



CALORIC. 

Distinction between Caloric and Heat. — Speculations as to 
the nature of Caloric. — Like the other forces of nature ; it is 
known only by its effects. — Difference between heat and tem- 
perature, — Illustrations . 



EFFECTS OF HEAT — EXPANSION. 

Expansion a universal effect of heat, within certain limits.— 
Cause of the expansion of bodies. — Opposed to Cohesion. — 
Expansion least in solids, and greatest in gases. 

Expansion of Solids. 

Illustrations. — Unequal expansion of solids. — Applications 
in the arts. — Metals the most expansible. — Linear and cubical 
expansion. — Effects of expansion on clocks and watches. — The 
gridiron and mercurial pendulum. — Compound balance-wheel. 
— Unequal expansion of crystals in different directions (Mits- 
cherlich), 

Hate of expansion not perfectly uniform for equal incre- 
ments of heat, especially at high temperatures. — Platinum 
the most uniform. — Greater liability of thick glass to be 
fractured on the application of heat. — Use of red-hot iron rod 
to divide glass. 



20 PHYSICS. 

Expansion of Liquids. 

Why greater than in solids. — Unequal expansion of liquids. 
Illustrations. — Their rate of expansion not uniform for equal 
amounts of heat. — Mercury the most uniform of all liquids; 
consequently the best adapted for the thermometer. — The 
most expansible of all liquids are those produced by the con- 
densation of gases ; — Examples. — Exceptions to the law of 
expansion, in the case of water at 39-2° F., and of Rose's 
fusible metal. — Great force exerted in the freezing of water. 
— The expansion of liquids influences their specific gravity. 

Expansion of Gases. 

Gases much more expansible by heat than either solids or 
liquids. — All gases, if dry, are very nearly equally expansible; 
and their rate of expansion, for equal degrees of heat, nearly 
uniform, viz. : 1-49 1th of the whole bulk (Regnault and Mag- 
nus). — Pressure produces no sensible effect in this law. 

Phenomena of winds. — The trade-winds. — Flues. — Ventila- 
tion. 

The Thermometer. — Indicates the temperature, and not the 
amount of heat of bodies. — Illustration.— Liquids better 
adapted for thermometers than either solids or gases. 

Sanctorio's thermometer.— Obj ections. 

Leslie's differential thermometer.- — Its use. 

Mercury the best adapted of all liquids for the thermo- 
meter. — Alcohol employed to indicate temperatures below 
—39° F. 

Circumstances to be attended to in making a thermometer : 
— Selection of a glass tube ;— Blowing the bulb; — Mode of 
introducing the mercury; — Removing the air and moisture; — 
Hermetically sealing; — Ascertaining the two fixed points of 
the boiling and freezing; of water. 



CALORIC 21 

The three scales of Fahrenheit, Reaumur, and Celsius, or 
the Centigrade. — Rule for converting these scales into each 
other. — The zero of these scales is an arbitrary point, not the 
real zero of heat. — Self-registering thermometers. 

The Pyrometer; — Daniell's \ — Wedgewood's. 



COMMUNICATION OF HEAT. 
I. Conduction. 

Mode of transfer of the heat. — Solids the best conductors ; 
and of solids, the metals. — Illustrations. — Use of light, porous 
substances for clothing. — Vibrations and sounds produced by 
contact of two metals unequally heated (Trevelyan). — Our 
ordinary conceptions of the temperature of different bodies 
much affected by their conducting power. — Examples. 

II. Convection, or Circulation. 

The method by which heat is communicated to liquids and 
gases, which are very imperfect conductors.- — Proofs. 

Mode of heating liquids. — Ascending and descending cur- 
rents.— Application to the heating of houses by hot water. — 
Air and gases heated only by convection. — Applications. 

III. Radiation. 

Definition. — All bodies do not radiate heat equally. — Leslie's 
method of determining. — It does not depend on the color of 
the surface. — The best and worst radiators. — Radiant heat 
emitted by bodies at any temperature above that of the sur- 
rounding air. — Disposition of the rays of heat. 



22 physics. 

Reflection of Heat. — Illustrated by concave mirrors. — It 
follows the laws of reflected light. — Relation between Radia- 
tion and Reflection. 

Absorption of Heat. — Correspondence with Radiation. — 
Illustrations. — Influence of color on Absorption. — Application 
of the laws of Radiation to explain the formation of dew, and 
of land and sea-breezes. — Effect of clouds on the formation of 
dew. 

Transmission of Heat. — Radiant heat, like light, passes 
through certain bodies. — Transcalent, or diaihermanous 
bodies. — Solar heat alone passes through all transparent 
bodies ; the rajs of artificial heat are more or less intercepted. 
— Melloni's experiments. — Further analogy between radiant 
heat and light.— Refraction of calorific rays. — Burning lenses. 



LIQUEFACTION — LATENT HEAT. 

Action of Caloric in converting a solid into a fluid, and a 
fluid into a gas, explained. — The fusing-point of different 
solids very variable, though constant for the same body. 
Fluids solidify on abstracting their heat. — Certain liquids may 
be cooled below their freezing-point, without congelation. — 
Disappearance or absorption of heat occasioned by liquefaction. 
— Illustrations. — The heat not lost, although insensible to the 
thermometer. — Term latent heat, or heat of fluidity. — Proof 
that it is not lost. 

The amount of heat rendered latent by the conversion of 
ice into water is 142 degrees F. — It varies for different solids. 
— Examples. 

Absorption of heat in the conversion of a liquid into a vapor. 



CALORIC. 23 

— The quantity absorbed by the change of water into steam 
(or the latent heat of steam), is about 1000° F. — The whole 
of this heat is again given out, or rendered sensible, by con- 
densing the steam into water. 

The latent heat of different vapors varies, as in the case 
of liquids. — Examples. — Relation of latent heat to solids. 

Cold produced by the solution of certain salts. — Frigorific 
mixtures. 



VAPORIZATION. 

Distinction between Ebullition and Evaporation. — Phe- 
nomena of Ebullition. — The boiling-point varies for different 
liquids, but constant for the same liquid under the same con- 
ditions. 

Circumstances affecting the boiling-point : 

(1) Pressure. — Experiment of the culinary paradox. — The 
boiling-point lowered by ascending high mountains, at the 
rate of one degree for every 550 feet of elevation (Forbes). 
In a vacuum liquids generally boil at a temperature 145° 
below their natural boiling-point. — Applications of boiling 
under a reduced pressure, to pharmacy and the arts. 

Effect of increasing the pressure by confining the vapor. — 
High and low steam. — The tension or elastic force of steam 
estimated by atmospheres. — Illustrated by Marcet's Apparatus. 
— Great increase of the tension of steam by increase of tem- 
perature. — Relation between the latent heat of steam and its 
temperature. — General principles of the steam-engine. 

Process of distillation and sublimation. — Retorts, stills, and 
alembics. — Liebeg\s Condenser. 

(2) The nature of the vessel. 



24 PHYSICS. 

(3) The depth of the column of the liquid. 
The spheroidal condition of liquids illustrated and ex- 
plained. 

Evaporation. 

Evaporation of water occurs at all temperatures. — Shown in 
a Torricellian vacuum. — Division of bodies into fixed and 
volatile. — The tension of the vapors increases with the tem- 
perature.— -Heat is rendered insensible, or cold is produced by 
evaporation. — Water frozen by its own evaporation, and by 
the evaporation of ether. — -The Cryophorus. 

Application of evaporation to therapeutics and physiology. — 
Point of maximum density of vapors. — Methods of reducing 
a vapor to a liquid. — Farraday's experiments on liquefying 
the permanent gases. — The dew-point.— Hygrometers. 

Circumstances influencing evaporation : (1) Nature of the 
liquid. (2) Extent of surface. (3) Dryness of the air. 
(4) Motion or rest of the air. (5) Temperature. 



CAPACITY FOR HEAT — SPECIFIC HEAT. 

The fact that different bodies require different amounts of 
heat to raise them to the same temperature, explained and 
illustrated. — Modes of ascertaining the specific heat, or capa- 
city for heat, of bodies. The specific heat of a body is always 
altered by a change in its density.- — Condensation diminishes 
the capacity for heat, and consequently sets it free; while 
rarefaction, by increasing the capacity, renders heat latent, 
and produces cold. — Illustrations in the case of solids, liquids, 
and gases- 



CALORIC. 25 



SOURCES OF HEAT. 



1. The Sun. — Unequal temperature of the earth's surface 
at different latitudes. — The atmosphere only heated by con- 
vection from the earth. — Fall of the thermometer on ascending 
above the level of the sea. — The line of perpetual congelation, 
or the snow-line: — The isothermal line. — Relations to climate. 

2. The interior of the earth. — Hot springs. — Volcanoes. 
The isogeothermal line. — The increase of temperature, in pro- 
portion to the descent, is about one degree Faht. for every 45 
feet, or 117° per mile. 

3. Other sources of heat are chemical action, electricity, 
combustion, mechanical action, and vital action. 

Heat and cold as therapeutic agents. 



26 physics. 



LIGHT. 

Two theories of Light, — the Newtonian or corpuscular, and 
the Huygenian or the undulatory. — Analogy with Sound. 

Velocity of light. — A ray of light. — A pencil. — Absorption, 
reflection, and transmission of light.— Opaque and transparent 
bodies. 

Reflection of Light. 

Law for plain surfaces. — For concave and convex surfaces. 
— Application to the examination of the eye. — The speculum. 

Refraction of Light. 

Law, in passing from a rarer to a denser medium, and vice 
versa. — The amount of refraction dependent upon the density 
and the combustibility of the body. — Applications.— Disposi- 
tion of the refracted ray after passing through parallel sur- 
faces ; — through convex and concave lenses. 

The Eye as an optical instrument. — Defects of ordinary 
lenses. — Presbyopia and myopia. — Double refraction. — The 
microscope. 

Decomposition, or Dispersion of Light. 

The prism. — The spectrum. — Newton's and Brewster's 
theory of colors. — Simple and compound colors. — Specula- 
tions as to the number of undulations required to produce the 
different colors. 

Invisible rays of the spectrum. — Calorific and chemical rays. 



MAGNETISM. 27 

Deduction as to the identity of the forces of Light, Heat, 
and Chemical Attraction. 

Chemical effects of light seen in the inorganic and organic 
world. — Photography. 

Physiological and therapeutical effects of light. 

Polarization of light. — Applications. 



MAGNETISM. 



Definition. — A natural and an artificial magnet. — Poles of 
a magnet. — The magnetic needle. — Magnetic attraction and 
repulsion. — Explanation of the polarity of a magnet. — Use of 
the armature. 

Magnetic induction. — Variation of the needle. — The mari- 
ner's compass. 

Dip of the needle. — North and south magnetic poles. — Mag- 
netic equator and meridian. 

The earth's magnetism. — Diamagnetism. 



28 PHYSICS. 



ELECTRICITY. 

Derivation of the term. — Phenomena of attraction and 
repulsion illustrated. — Division of bodies into electrics and 
non-electrics. — Difference between the electricity of glass and 
that of resin. 

Theories of Electricity (Franklin's and Du Fay's). 

Conduction of Electricity. — The best conductors the worst 
electrics, and vice versa; — Examples. — Velocity of electricity. 

Sources of Electricity. 

1. Friction. — The electrical machine, its construction and 

use. — The electric. — Rubber. — Prime conductor. — 
Amalgam. — Insulation. — Precautions to insure success. 
— Experiments. 

2. Atmospheric electricity. — Thunder- storms. — Identity of 

lightning and electricity. 

3. Electricity of steam. 

4. Electricity of cleavage. 

Electrical Induction. — Explanation. — Application to ex- 
plain the phenomena of attraction and repulsion. 

Quantity and Intensity. — The glass pane. — The Leyden jar. 
— Use of the metallic coating. — Proof that the electricity does 
not reside in the coating. — Mode of discharging the jar. — The 
universal discharger. — The electrical battery. — The electro- 
phorus. 



ELECTRICITY. 29 

Distribution of Electricity. — The quantity of electricity is 
influenced by the surface, much more than by the mass. — 
Illustration of the hollow sphere. — Effect of elongating the 
sphere into an ellipse. — Influence of points. — Electrical aura. 

Effects of Electricity. 

1. Light. — The spark. — Influence of the knob on the appear- 

ance of the spark. — The brush. — Light in vacuo. 

2. Heat. — Inflammation of alcohol, ether, and gunpowder. 

— The electrical cannon. — Eudiometer. — Effects of light- 
ning. 

3. Mechanical disruption. — The thunderbolt. — Influence of 

the lightning-rod. — Proper mode of constructing. — The 
thunder-house. 

4. Physiological and therapeutical effects. — Medical electri- 

city. — The spark. — The shock. — The aura. — The bath. 

5. Magnetic effects. — (Ersted's experiments. 

6. Chemical effects. — Ozone. 

Measures of Electricity. — Electroscopes and electrometers. 
— Henley's quadrant electrometer. — Bennet's gold-leaf elec- 
trometer. — Coulomb's torsion electrometer. — Harris's striking 
electrometer. — The condensing electrometer. 



30 PHYSICS. 



GALVANISM, OK CURRENT ELECTRICITY. 

Galvani's original experiment; — Ms inferences. — Volta's 
theory of contact. — Faraday's chemical theory. 

Simple galvanic, or Voltaic circle. — Chemical action always 
necessary. — Idea intended by the use of the term " current." — 
Polarity of the circle before contact of the poles. — Changes 
produced by the contact.— The positive and negative poles. 

Identity of Galvanism and common electricity. — Difference 
as to quantity and tension. — The intensity vastly increased by 
multiplying the surfaces. 

Compound Voltaic circle, or battery. — Volta's pile. — -Crown 
of cups. — Cruikshank's trough. — The arrangement, according 
to Volta's or Faraday's theory. — Hare's deflagrator and calo- 
rimotor. 

Proofs that chemical action is the cause of the electricity 
developed. — Use of the sulphuric acid. — Use of amalgamating 
the zinc. — Proper kinds of conductors. 

Defect in all common batteries. — Constant Batteries; — prin- 
ciples of their construction. — Daniell's, Groves', Sniee's, Schon- 
bein's, Bunsen's, &c. 

Effects of Galvanism, or Current Electricity. 

1. Heat. — Ignition of five series, and metallic leaves. — Ap- 
plication to firing mines and submarine explosions. 

2. Light. — The light between two charcoal points. — Proof 



GALVANISM. ' 31 

that it is not the effect of combustion. — Applications in the 
arts. 

8. Chemical Effects. — 'Electrolysis. — Definite action of the 
electricity. — Two essential conditions for electrolysis. — Fara- 
day's researches. — Secondary decompositions. — Electrotyping 
and electroplating. 

4. Magnetic Effects, — Electro-Magnetism.- — Modes of esti- 
mating current electricity. — (a) By the galvanometer. — (b) By 
the voltameter. 



32 ' PHYSICS. 



ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

Observed effects of lightning on the compass. — Experiments 
of (Ersted and Ampere. 

Directions of a magnetic needle, under the influence of an 
electric current. — The galvanometer. 

An electro -mag net defined. — Helices acting as magnets (De 
la Rive). 

Horseshoe electro-magnet. — Its power.— Mode of making 
a permanent magnet, by galvanic electricity. — Motion pro- 
duced. — Application as a motor force to machinery. — The 
electro-magnetic engine. — Obstacles to its use. 

Electro-magnetic machines. 

The electro-magnetic telegraph explained. 

Secondary or induced galvanic currents explained and illus- 
trated. — The vibrating machine, or electrotome.— Its use in 
medicine. 

Power of magnetism to produce a galvanic current. — Mag- 
neto-electria machines. — Their superiority over the electro- 
tome, in medical practice. 

Thermo- Electricity : — Effect of heating two dissimilar 
metals, in contact. — The Thermo-multiplier of Melloni. 

Probable cause of the earth's magnetism. 



ANIMAL ELECTRICITY. 33 



ANIMAL ELECTRICITY. 

Evidence that electricity is generated by living animals, 
from the fact that every life-action is accompanied by chemical 
changes. 

Dynamic electricity exhibited in the highest state of ten- 
sion in the Electric Ray or Torpedo, and in the Electric Eel or 
Gymnotus. — Anatomical arrangement of the electrical appa- 
ratus in these fishes. — Mode of receiving a shock. — Proof 
that it is common electricity which is thus evolved. 

Muscular contractions excited by electricity. — Extreme 
sensitiveness of a freshly-dissected frog's leg. 

Electrical currents naturally existing in the muscles, and 
other parts of the body. 

Effects of electricity upon animals. 

Difference between the effects of a direct and an inverse cur- 
rent upon a muscle. — Deductions for the therapeutical applica- 
tion of electricity. 

Influence of the interrupted currents. 

Theories of the origin of muscular electricity (Liebig and 
Matteucci). 

Probable use of the muscular currents. 

Question as to the identity of animal electricity and the nerve- 
force. 

Therapeutical applications of electricity. — Instruments em- 
ployed. 



PART II. 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 



Substances, as usually presented to the chemist, are com- 
plex. — An element defined. — Number of elementary bodies at 
present known. — The tendency of these elements to combine 
together, constitutes chemical affinity. 

Illustration of the distinction between the solution of a sub- 
stance in water, and true chemical combination. — Chemical 
affinity between bodies always takes place in definite propor- 
tions ; and these latter are termed their equivalents, or com- 
bining proportions. 

Table of chemical equivalents. — Two standards adopted, — 
one in which hydrogen is taken as 1 ; the other, in which 
oxygen is taken as 100. 

Dalton's atomic theory. 

Different cases of affinity : 

1. Simple Combination: — When two bodies, A and B, 
combine together, to form a compound AB. — Examples. 

2. Single Elective Affinity : — Where a single body, A, 
decomposes a compound body, BC, and unites with either 
B or C, to form a new compound, AB, or AC. — Examples. 

3. Double Elective Affinity, or double decomposition : — 
Where two compound bodies mutually decompose each other, 



LAWS OF COMBINATION. 35 

forming two new compounds; as AB and CD ; forming AC, 
and BD. — Examples. 

4. A third body being added to two others already com- 
bined, unites itself with both, — -as A uniting with CD, to 
form ACD. — Example. • 

The laws which regulate chemical combination by weight, 
are termed the "Laws of Combination." — They are as fol- 
lows: 

1. The Law of Definite Proportions. — Explanation. 

2. The Law of Equivalents. — Explanation. 

3. The Law of Multiple Proportions. — Explanation. 

4. The Law for Compound Bodies.— Example. 

The circumstances influencing Chemical Affinity, and the 
changes accompanying it, have already been considered under 
Part I. 



36 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 



Chemical Nomenclature very unsettled until the time of 
Lavosier, who originated the present system, in 1787. 

The names of elementary bodies often arbitrary ; — but fre- 
quently have reference to some property they may possess. — 
Examples. 

The Latin or Greek name given. — Rule, where the sub- 
stance is composed of two elements, that the most electro- 
negative shall take precedence. — Example. 

Rule, if the electro-negative element be in more than one 
proportion, that the Greek or Latin numeral shall be prefixed. 
— Examples. 

Rule, where the electro-positive element is more than one. 
Signification of the word sesqui. — Mode of termination, if the 
compound is acid. 

Application of the terms hypo and hyper. 

Nomenclature of salts formed from acids terminating in ous 
and ic. 

Nomenclature of salts containing more than one equivalent 
of acid. 

Failure of this nomenclature in Organic Chemistry. 

Advantage and use of Symbols. 



OXYGEN. 37 



SIMPLE; OR ELEMENTARY BODIES. 

Division of elementary bodies into the two classes of non- 
metallic and metallic. 

Thirteen only belong to the former division. 



OXYGEN. 



Symbol^ 0. — Equivalent, 8. 

Universal prevalence in nature.—- Discovered by Priestley, 
in 1774, and by Scheele, subsequently. — Name. 

Management of gases. — Pneumatic trough. 

Mode of procuring : — from oxide of mercury, — from peroxide 
of manganese, — from chlorate and nitrate of potassa. — Ra- 
tionale. — To be collected over water. 

Properties. — A permanent gas. — Neutral, — colorless, — in- 
odorous. — Specific gravity, 1-1057. — A powerful supporter of 
combustion and of respiration; — not combustible. — Illustra- 
tions. 

Its union with other bodies gives rise to the formation of 
oxides or acids. 

Proof that it is the oxygen of the atmosphere which sup- 
ports respiration and combustion. 

Effects of breathing pure oxygen. 

Physiological uses of oxygen in respiration. — Quantity of 



38 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

oxygen consumed in respiration. — A body undergoing com- 
bustion in oxygen always gains weight. 

The quantity of heat evolved is proportionate to the amount 
of oxygen consumed ; — and is the same, whether from rapid 
or slow combustion. 

Term Combustible. — Products of ordinary combustion. — 
Nature of the air remaining after combustion. — Evolution of 
heat explained. 

Heat evolved by the germination and flowering of plants. — 
Animal heat. 

Therapeutical use of oxygen. — Ozone. 



HYDROGEN. 

Symbol, H. — Equivalent, 1. — Discovered by Cavendish, in 
1766. — Name. — Exists in nature. — Obtained by the decom- 
position of water by several processes. — Rationale. — Cause of 
the impurity, as usually procured. — Self-regulating reservoir 
of Dr. Hare. 

Properties. — Physical. — Color, taste, and smell. — Specific 
gravity, 0*692. — Its levity shown. — Its employment for bal- 
loons now superseded by coal gas. — Its great diffusibility. 

Chemical. — Neutral. — A non-supporter of combustion, but 
combustible. — Has a strong affinity for oxygen. — A powerful 
deoxidizer. — Forms an explosive mixture, with oxygen, in 
certain proportions. — Color of the flame.— Result of combus- 
tion in air or oxygen shown. 

Philosophical candle. — Musical sounds. 

Effect of spongy platinum on a mixture of hydrogen and 
oxygen. — Dobereiner's lamp. — Explanation. 

Great heat of the hydrogen flame. — Oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. 



HYDROGEN. 39 

— Effect of this jet on lime or magnesia. — Application to the 
Drummond light ; and the microscope. — Effect of breathing pure 
hydrogen. — Strong analogy between the chemical habitudes 
of hydrogen and the metals. — Influence as to its nature. 



COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. 

Protoxide of Hydrogen. — Water. — Symbol, HO. — Equiva- 
lent, 1+8=9. — Its composition demonstrated both by ana- 
lysis and synthesis. 

Properties. — Physical. — Color, taste, and odor, when pure. 
— Specific gravity, 1. — Highly refractive of light. — A good 
conductor of electricity. — -Freezing and boiling points. — 
Greatest density at about 40° F. — Never exists pure in nature. 
— Usual impurities. — Composition of the air existing in water. 
— Obtained pure only by distillation. — Source of the salines 
found in springs. — Filtration. — Soft and hard waters. — Re- 
medy for hard waters. 

Chemical. — Neutral. — A powerful solvent. — Solvent power 
over salts is usually increased by heat. — Exceptions. — Effect 
of a temperature above 212° upon its solvent properties. — 
Water acts as a feeble acid, forming hydrates. — Examples. — 
As a base. — Examples. — Necessity for water in the strongest 
acids. — As water of crystallization. — As water of constitution. 
— Examples. 

Classification of saline springs. 

Tests for the impurities of common water : — For the carbo- 
nic acid ; — Chloride of sodium ; — Sulphate of lime ; — Carbo- 
nate of lime. 

Importance of a due supply of water to health. — Impuri- 
ties in water often a source of disease. — Effects of a deficiency 
of water in the animal economy. — Effects of an excess. 



40 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Deutoxide, or Binoxide of Hydrogen. — Symbol, HO a . — 
Equivalent, 1 + 16=17. — Obtained. — Properties. — A liquid. 
— Sinks in water. — Specific gravity, 14. — Bleaches. — Facility 
of decomposition. 



NITROGEN. 

Symbol, N. — Equivalent, 14. — Name. — Name azote given 
by Lavoisier. — Discovered by Rutherford. — Exists in nature. — 
Proportion in the atmosphere. — Necessity of it in the food of 
animals. — Also in the alkaloids. 

Modes of obtaining: (1.) By burning out the oxygen from 
a limited portion of atmospheric air, by means of phosphorus; 
— impurities. — (2.) By passing atmospheric air over copper 
heated to redness. — (3.) By passing chlorine through a solu- 
tion of ammonia; — danger. — (4.) By action of dilute nitric 
acid on muscular flesh. 

Properties, — Neutral. — Irrespirable, though not poisonous. 
— Indifferent to nearly all bodies in its free state. — Not so in 
its nascent condition. — Specific gravity, -972. — Not absorbed 
by water. — Probable use of it in the atmosphere. — Not em- 
ployed in medicine. — Gradual combination of the nitrogen 
and oxygen of the air, under the influence of electricity. 

Nitrogen forms with oxygen five compounds, and one mix- 
ture. 

The Atmosphere. 

A mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, and not a chemical 
compound. — Composition by weight and volume. 

Physical Properties already discussed. 

Chemical Properties. — Color, taste, and smell, when pure. 
— Other matters usually contained in the atmosphere. — Pro- 



NITROGEN. 41 

portion of carbonic acid. — Sources. — Proof of its existence. — 
Variation in its quantity. — Use of it in the vegetable world. 
— Watery vapor of the atmosphere. — Variable quantity. — 
Humidity and dryness of the atmosphere. — Ammonia in the 
atmosphere. — Use of it. — Other impurities of the atmospherer 
— Great importance of the law of " diffusibility of gases' ' to 
the integrity of the atmosphere. 

Analysis of the air. — (1.) Eudiometry. — Eudiometers :- — 
Hope's. — Ure's, &c. — Dr. Hare's Volumscope. — Principle 
involved in analyzing the atmosphere by hydrogen. — (2.) By 
passing the air over copper heated to redness, in a porcelain 
tube. — (3.) By the slow oxidation of phosphorus in a known 
quantity of atmospheric air. 

Chemical influence of the atmosphere on surrounding bodies. 
— Seen in oxidation, fermentation, and decomposition. — Dif- 
ference in the composition of the atmosphere at the present 
time, and at the earlier epoch of the earth's history. 

Influence of atmospheric variations on health. 

COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN. 

Protoxide of Nitrogen. — Nitrous Oxide. — Laughing Gas. 
—Symbol, NO.— Equivalent, 14+8=22.— Obtained by de- 
composing nitrate of ammonia by heat. — Bationale. 

Properties. — Color, odor, and taste. — Liquefied by a pres- 
sure of fifty atmospheres. — Absorbed by water. — How col- 
lected. — Nearly as good a supporter of combustion as oxygen. 
— Specific gravity, 1-52. — Products when exploded with hy- 
drogen. — Effects of inhaling it into the lungs. — Physiological 
explanation. — Therapeutical uses. 

Deutoxide, or Binoxide of Nitrogen. — Nitric Oxide. — 
Symbol, NO a . — Equivalent, 14+16=30. — Procured by action 
of nitric acid on metallic copper. — Rationale. 

4* 



42 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Properties. — Colorless.— Irrespirable. — A non-supporter of 
combustion generally, although containing twice as much 
oxygen as the protoxide. — Explanation. — Specific gravity, 
1*039. — Great affinity for oxygen shown. — Its employment for 
.analyzing the atmosphere, — Effect on a solution of protosul- 
phate of iron. — Effect of burning it with an equal measure of 
hydrogen. — Effect of certain of the more oxidizable metals 
on it. 

Nitrous Acid. — (Hyponitrous Acid.) — Symbol, N0 3 . — 
Equivalent, 14+24=38. — Specific gravity. — Direct mode of 
forming it, by combining together four measures of the deut- 
oxide of nitrogen with one of oxygen, and condensing it by 
means of cold. 

Properties. — Effect of water upon the liquid. — Cannot be 
made to unite directly with bases. — Nitrate of lead and nitrate 
of soda, how made. — It combines with several of the strong 
acids, to form compounds. 

Peroxide of Nitrogen. — (Nitrous, or Hyponitric Acid.) — 
Symbol, N0 4 . — Equivalent, 14+32=46. — Reason for name. 
— Want of all acid properties. — Obtained by uniting together 
two measures of deutoxide of nitrogen, and one of dry oxygen, 
and condensing by means of cold, — or by the distillation of 
nitrate of lead. — Rationale. 

Properties of the liquid. — Specific gravity, 1*45. — Great 
volatility. — Corrosive.— -Effect of water. — Its vapor absorbed 
by strong nitric acid. — Decomposed by the oxidizable metals. 

Nitric Acid — (Azotic Acid.) — Symbol, N0 5 . — Equivalent, 
14+40=54. — Commercial name. — Its composition first deter- 
mined by Cavendish. — A trace of it discoverable in the atmo- 
sphere, after a thunder-storm. — Occurs in nature only in com- 
bination with bases. — Origin. 

Mode of preparation, by action of oil of vitriol on nitrate of 



NITROGEN. 43 

potassa, or nitrate of soda. — Rationale. — Importance of using 
two equivalents of sulphuric acid. 

Properties, when pure. — Colorless. — Specific gravity, 1-52. — 
Contains one equivalent of water. — The anhydrous acid is 
destitute of acid properties. — Boils at 184° F., and freezes at 
40°; — fumes in the air- — becomes yellowish by exposure. — 
Its action on tin and iron. 

Another definite hydrate exists, containing four equivalents 
of water.— Specific gravity, 1-42;— boils at 250°F.— Effect 
of boiling nitric acid of different strengths, is to reduce them 
to one uniform standard of 1-42, — the strength of the ordi- 
nary acid of the shops. — Yellow color due to the peroxide in 
solution. — Effect of water. — Fuming nitric acid. 

Impurities of the common acid, — detected. — Corrosive pro- 
perties. — Effect on the skin. — A powerful oxidizer.— Effect on 
red-hot charcoal, — on oil of turpentine; — sulphur and iodine; 
— on metals; on vegetable substances. — -Action of the strong 
acid on paper and cotton. — How decomposed. — Uses. 

Character of the nitrates. — Their uses. 

Poisonous effects of nitric acid. — Antidotes. 

Tests. — For the strong acid : — Copper, — Morphia. — For the 
diluted acid: — Sulphate of indigo; — Protosulphate of iron; — 
Copper filings. — Mode of proceeding to detect it in a nitrate. — 
Its most important salts. 

COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN. 

Ammonia. — Symbol, NH 3 . — Equivalent, 14 +3=17. — 
Name. — Exists naturally in small quantities in the air; also 
in the soil, as the product of organic decomposition. 

Prepared by heating together sal ammoniac and quicklime. 
— Rationale. — Must be collected over mercury, or by displace- 
ment. 

Properties. — A colorless gas, — very pungent, — has a power- 



44 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

ful alkaline reaction. — Forms salts with acids. — Specific gra- 
vity -589. — Absorbed by water. — Extinguishes flame. — Lique- 
fied by a pressure of 6*5 atmospheres, at 60°. 

Solution of Ammonia. — Liquor Ammonia?,, or Aqua Am- 
monioB. — Prepared by passing gaseous ammonia into water. — 
Of different strengths. — Properties. — Impurities detected. — 
Strength of solution estimated. 

Analysis of ammonia by electricity. 

Tests for ammonia. 

Uses of ammonia by plants. 

Salts of Ammonia. — Deferred. 

Ammonium. — Symbol, NH 4 . — A hypothetical metal. — Its 
consideration postponed. 

Amidogen. — Symbol, NH 2 . — A hypothetical radical,— has 
never been isolated; — only in combination as an amide. 



SULPHUR. 

Symbol, S. — Equivalent, 16. 

Occurs in nature free, and combined with certain metals, 
as sulphurets; — and also in certain organic bodies. — Mode of 
extraction. — Commercial varieties. — Brimstone and flowers 
of sulphur. — Sulphur lotum, or washed sulphur. — Sidphur 
proBcipitatum. 

Properties. — Color. — Odor. — Solubility. — Specific gravity, 
1-98. — Fusing-point. — Effect of an increase of- heat. — Boil- 
ing-point. — Density of vapor. — Best mode of procuring crys- 
tals. — Dimorphism of Sulphur. — Inflammability. — Result of 
combustion in the air, or oxygen. — Resembles oxygen in its 
habitudes. — Its vapor a supporter of combustion. 

Uses in the arts and in medicine. 



SULPHUR. 45 

COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR AND OXYGEN. 

Hyposulphurous Acid. — Symbol, S 2 2 . — Equivalent, 32 + 
16=48. 

Mode of forming a hyposulphite. — The acid cannot be iso- 
lated from a base. 

Useful property of the alkaline hyposulphites to dissolve 
the haloid salts of silver : hence their employment in photo- 
graphy. 

Sulphurous Acid. — Symbol, S0 2 . — Equivalent,16 + 16=32. 
— The product of the combustion of sulphur in dry air or 
oxygen. 

Prepared by boiling sulphuric acid, or copper, or mercury. 
— Rationale. 

Properties. — A colorless, suffocating gas, a non-supporter 
of combustion, — Specific gravity, 2-21. — Liquefied at 0°. — 
Very soluble in water. — Action of the air upon its solution.' — 
Effect on colors. 

The sulphites of no practical importance. — Effect of nitric 
acid upon them. 

Therapeutical uses. 

Sulphuric Acid. — Oil of Vitriol. — Symbol, S0 3 . — Equiva- 
lent.— 16+24=40. 

Discovered by Basil Valentin. — Great importance to the 
chemist and in the arts. — Old method of preparation. — Fum- 
ing acid of Nordhausen. — Rationale. 

Present mode of preparation. — Rationale. — Mode of concen- 
tration. — Impurities.— Properties of Nordhausen acid (2S0 3 + 
HO). — Dark color. — Fumes in the air. — Specific gravity, 
1*9. — Effect of distilling. 

Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid. — Properties. 

Properties of Oil of Vitriol. — (S0 3 + HO.) — A dense, oily, 
colorless liquid. — Specific gravity, 1*85. — Very corrosive, — 



46 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

The most powerful of the acids. — Effect on organic bodies. — 
Boils at 620° ; freezes at — 15°. — Strong affinity for water. — 
Changes of temperature produced by combining together sul- 
phuric acid and water, in different proportions. 

Hydrates of Sulphuric Acid. — 2S0 3 +HO (Nordhausen) ) 
S0 3 +H0 (oil of vitriol); S0 3 +2HO; S0 8 +3HO. 

Mode of ascertaining the quantity of real acid in any given 
specimen. 

Diverse action of oil of vitriol on the metals. — Sometimes 
contains arsenic as an impurity. 

Testy for the undiluted and the diluted acids. 

Its vapor, how decomposed.— The most important sulphates. 

Chloro-sulphuric, Nitro-sulphuric, and Azoto-sulphuric 
Acid. 

Hyposulphuric Acid. — Symbol; S 2 5 . — Equivalent, 32 + 
40=72. 

Mode of preparing it in solution. — Properties. — The hypo- 
sulphates. 

Trithionic, or Sulphuretted Hyposulphuric Acid, S 3 5 , or 
S.O.+S- 

Tetrathionic, or Bisulphuretted Hyposulphuric Acid, S 4 5 , 
orS 3 5 +S 2 . 

Pentathionicj or Trisulphuretted Hyposulphuric Acid, S 3 3 , 
or S 2 5 + S 3- 

COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR AND HYDROGEN. 

Sulphydric Acid — Sulphuretted Hydrogen , — or Hydrosul- 
phuric Acid. — Symbol, SH. — Equivalent, 16+1=17. 

Sulphur and hydrogen will only combine directly in the 
nascent condition. 

Exists naturally in sulphurous waters; — also as a product of 
organic decomposition. 

Modes of preparation. — Rationale. 



SELENIUM. 47 

Properties. — Colorless. — Fetid odor and taste; — poisonous 
if inhaled; — reddens litmus; — absorbed by water. — Natural 
sulpliur springs. — A non-supporter of combustion, but combus- 
tible. — Products of combustion. — Is decomposed by chlorine. 
Specific gravity, 1-19. — Liquefied by pressure of seventeen 
atmospheres at 50°. — It detonates when mixed with oxygen 
in certain proportions. — Effects of strong nitric acid. 

Its great value to the chemist as a test. — Used either in 
solution, or better in the gaseous form. — Action on metallic 
solutions. — Tests. — Therapeutical use of sulphur waters. 

Relation to miasmata. 

Bisulphuretted Hydrogen, HS 2 . — Mode of preparing. — 
Properties. — Eesembles the Binoxide of Hydrogen. 

Compound of Sulphur and Nitrogen. — Sulphide of Nitro- 
gen, NS 3 . 



SELENIUM. 



Symbol, Se. — Equivalent, 39. — Discovered by Berzelius, 
in 1817, in a specimen of Swedish sulphur. — Name. — Usually 
found associated with sulphur, in minute quantities. 

Properties. — A brittle, grayish-colored, solid, non-metallic, 
though having a metallic lustre. — Specific gravity, 4*3. — 
Without odor or taste. — Softens by heat, fuses at 482°. — Pecu- 
liar odor of its vapor, by which it may be recognized. — Resem- 
bles sulphur in its habitudes. 

COMPOUNDS OE SELENIUM AND OXYGEN. 

The Oxide is doubtful. 

Selenious Acid, Se0 2 . — Analogous to sulphurous acid.— 



48 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Mode of preparing. — Properties. — A very strong acid, dis- 
placing nitric and chlorohydric acids, but not sulphuric, — 
Forms selenites. 

Selenic Acid, Se0 3 . — Analogous to sulphuric acid. — How 
obtained. — Properties. — Forms selenates. 

SELENIUM AND HYDROGEN. 

Selenhydric Acid — Hydroselenic Acid — or Seleniuretted 
Hydrogen, HSe. — Analogous to sulphuretted hydrogen. — 
Mode of procuring.— Properties. 



PHOSPHORUS. 

Symbol, P. — Equivalent 32. 

Exists in the organic and inorganic kingdoms. — Its import- 
ance in the animal economy, — being an essential ingredient 
of bones and of nerve-substance. — Proportion in the brain. 

Discovered by Brandt, of Hamburg, in 1660, in urine. — 
Name. 

Mode of preparation. — Purified. 

Properties. — A translucent, solid, waxy lustre. — Specific 
gravity, 1-77.— Melts at 108° F.,— boils at 550° F.— Should 
be kept under water. — Danger of handling. — Proper solvents. 
— Effect of light. — Nature of red phosphorus. — Crystals. — 
Inflammability. 

Effect of exposure to the air. — Nature of the vapors evolved. 
— Effect of inflammable gases on the slow oxidation of phos- 
phorus. — Result of burning in the air, or in oxygen. — Use of 
phosphorus for manufacture of lucifer matches. — Poisonous 
properties. 



PHOSPHORUS. 49 

COMPOUNDS OF PHOSPHORUS AND OXYGEN. 

Oxide, P a O. — Mode of obtaining. — Properties. 

Hypophosphorous acid, PO. — Formed indirectly by the 
mutual reaction of phosphorus, water, and an alkali. — Proper- 
ties. — A powerful deoxidizer. — Forms salts. 

Phosphorous Acid. — Symbol, P0 3 . — Equivalent, 56. — Pro- 
duced by the slow oxidation of phosphorus in the air. — Ob- 
tained anhydrous. — Properties. — Properties of the solution. — 
Strong affinity for oxygen. — Forms phosphites. 

Phosphoric Acid. — Symbol, P0 5 . — Equivalent, 72.— Ob- 
tained anhydrous. — Properties. 

Modes of procuring the hydrated acid. — Glacial phospho- 
ric acid. — Properties. 

The polyhasic nature of phosphoric acid. 

Three hydrates : 
3HO,P0 5 , or tribasic phosphoric acid. 
2HO,P0 5 , or bibasic phosphoric acid. 
HO,P0 5 , or monobasic phosphoric acid. 

The first of these, or common phosphoric acid — how ob- 
tained. — Characters. — Test. — Salts. 

The second, also named pyvophosphoric acid. — How pro- 
cured. — Character. — Salts. 

The third, also named meta phosphoric acid. — How obtained. 
— Character. — Salts. 

The phosphates found in the animal solids and fluids, — also 
in urinary deposits and calculi. 

The phosphates existing in plants — how derived. — Phos- 
phatic manures. 

COMPOUNDS OP PHOSPHORUS AND HYDROGEN. 

Three allatropic conditions. — Difference of their properties. 

5 



50 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Gaseous Phospliuretted Hydrogen, PH 3 . — Obtained. — 
Rationale. — How collected. — Properties. — Colorless. — A non- 
supporter of combustion. — Inflammable. — Phenomenon accom- 
panying its escape into the air, or oxygen gas. — Cause of its 
combustibility. — Effect on metallic solutions. 

Solid Hydride of Phosphorus, P 2 H. — Formed. — Proper- 
ties. 

Liquid Hydride of Phosphorus, PH 2 . — Formed. — Proper- 
ties. 

Phosphorus and Nitrogen, PN 2 . — A solid, easily decom- 
posed by heat. 

Phosphorus and Sulphur unite in several proportions, often 
with explosive violence. — Properties. 



CARBON. 

Symbol, C. — Equivalent, 6. 

Exists abundantly in the organic and inorganic kingdoms. 
— The chief constituent of animals and vegetables. — Dimor- 
phous states. 

Physical characters : 
Varieties. — 1. The diamond the purest. — Localities. — Color. 
— Shape. — Specific gravity, 3-5. — Origin. — Infusibility 
out of the air. — Proof of its nature. — Hardness. 

2. Graphite or Plumbago. — Localities. — Shape of crystals. — 

Composition. — Artificial formation. — Specific gravity, 1-9 
to 2-3. 

3. Anthracite. — Amorphous. — Very nearly pure carbon, but 

differs in its purity. 

4. Charcoal from Wood. — Mode of preparing on a large 

scale. — Impurities. — Obtained for chemical purposes. 



CARBON. 51 

5. Lamp-black. — Mode of preparation. — The purest variety 

from alcohol, or oil of turpentine. 

6. Coke. — The residue from the distillation of bituminous 

coal. — Impurities. — Use. 

7. Animal Charcoal — (Ivory or Bone Black). — Mode of pre- 

paration. — Properties. — Impurities. — Remarkable attrac- 
tion for organic coloring matters. — Its value to the che- 
mical manufacturer. — Effect on the vegetable alkalies.-r- 
Use as an antidote. 
Appearance of common charcoal. — Difference in its density. 

— Property of absorbing gases. — Effect on noisome gases ;— 

on tainted meat ; — on foul water. 

Uses of Charcoal: as a fuel ; — in the laboratory as a powerful 

deoxidizer ; — in metallurgy, for the reduction of various oxides; 

— in the arts, for the manufacture of steel, printing-ink, — and 

as a pigment. 



COMPOUNDS OF CARBON AND OXYGEN. 

Carbonic Oxide. — Symbol, CO. — Equivalent, 6 + 8=14. — 
Modes of obtaining it: (1.) By passing carbonic acid over 
red-hot charcoal. (2.) By action of sulphuric acid on oxalic 
acid, by aid of heat. — (3.) By action of sulphuric acid on 
ferrocyanide of potassium. — Rationales. 

Properties. — A colorless gas, — combustible. — Specific gra- 
vity, -972. — Very poisonous. — Products of its combustion. — 
Unites with chlorine to form phosgene gas. 

Carbonic Acid. — Symbol, CO a . — Equivalent, 6 + 16=22. 
— Discovered by Dr. Black, and named fixed air. — Sources 
of it in nature. — Preparation. — Rationale. — Collected over 
water, or by displacement. — Dried. 

Properties. — Color, odor, and taste. — Specific gravity, 1-52. 



52 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

—A non-supporter of combustion and respiration. — Incombus- 
tible. — Solubility in water, — increased by pressure. — Artificial 
mineral water, or carbonic acid water formed.— Liquefied by 
a pressure of twenty-eight atmospheres, at 32°F. — Solidified. 
— Intense cold produced by its evaporation. 

A feeble acid. — Effect on litmus, — on lime-water. — Exists 
naturally in certain waters, and in fermented liquors.— Effer- 
vescence. — Fatal effects of breathing it. — Importance of ven- 
tilation. — Accumulation in wells. — Mode of purifying. 

Proof of its existence in expired air. — The quantity varies 
at different periods of the day, averaging from 3 to 4 per cent. 
(Prout.) — It is also produced in the germinating and flower- 
ing of plants, but is consumed in their healthy growth. 

Amount existing in the atmosphere. — Its accumulation pre- 
vented. 

Test. — The carbonates, — test for. — Therapeutical uses of 
carbonic acid. 

Mode of treating its poisonous effects. 

Oxalic Acid, and the other compounds of carbon and oxy- 
gen, are deferred to Organic Chemistry. 

COMPOUNDS OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN. 

The Hydrocarbons are very numerous, and properly belong 
to the department of Organic Chemistry, since they are the 
result exclusively of organic decomposition. Two of them, 
only, will be alluded to under the present division. 

Light Carburetted Hydrogen. — Synonymes. — Marsh Gas. 
— Gas of the Acetates. — Dicarburet of hydrogen. — Symbol, 
CH 2 . — Equivalent, 8. 

Exists in nature, — at the bottom of stagnant marshes, in 
combination with carbonic acid ; — also in certain coal-mines, 
constituting the explosive fire-damp. — A constituent of coal 
gas. — Obtained by agitating the bottoms of marshes, and col- 



CARBON. 5o 

lecting the gas in a receiver. — The carbonic acid separated by 
means of lime-water. 

Prepared by heating together dry acetate of soda, and 
hydrates of potassa and lime ; the gas results from the decom- 
position of the acetic acid. 

Properties. — Without color, taste, or smell. — Specific gra- 
vity, -554. — Partially respirable. — Very combustible, with a 
bright flame.— A non-supporter of combustion. — Products of 
combustion. — Detonates with air or oxygen. — A very high 
temperature requisite to ignite it. — Davy's safety lamp. — 
Analysis by oxygen.— Effect of chlorine. 

Bicarburetted Hydrogen. — Named also Heavy Carburetted 
Hydrogen, and Olefiant Gas. — Symbol, C 3 H 2 . — Equivalent, 
14. 

Prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, by the 
aid of heat. — Rationale. — Substances generated at the same 
time. — Purified. 

Properties. — Colorless, tasteless, nearly inodorous. — Specific 
gravity, -985. — Not absorbed by water. — A non-supporter of 
combustion, but very combustible. — Products of combustion. 
— Luminous character of flame. — A constituent of coal gas. — 
Analysis by oxygen. — Detonates with air or oxygen. — Forms 
with chlorine Dutch liquid. — Results of ignition with chlo- 
rine. 

Goal and Oil Gases. 

Variety of coal employed in the manufacture of coal gas. — 
Nature of apparatus used in the distillation. — Three sorts of 
products resulting: (1.) Permanent gases. — (2.) The ammo- 
niacal liquor. — (3.) The coal-tar. — Circumstances affecting 
the relative proportion of these several products. — Mode of 
purifying the gas. — Mode of collecting it.- — Composition of 
the purified gas. — The matters separated. 



54 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

The illuminating property of the gas depends upon the 
light and heavy carburetted hydrogen present; and these vary 
considerably, according to the period of the process of distil- 
lation. 

Illuminating gas of excellent quality, is also manufactured 
from oil and rosin. 

COMBUSTION, AND THE STRUCTURE OF FLAME. 

Terms, red~hot } white-hot, and incandescence. — Difference 
between these and combustion. — Definition of combustion. — 
Ordinary combustion. — Origin of the heat and light. 

Modes of increasing the heat and light : (1.) By increasing 
the supply of air (oxygen), by means of a bellows. — (2.) By 
effecting the same end by lengthening the chimney or draft. — 
The smith's forge.- — The blast furnace. — The reverberatory 
furnace. 

Definition of " flame." — The temperature of flame is neces- 
sarily greater than the white heat of solid bodies. — The light 
emitted by pure flame is very feeble, as in a jet of pure hydro- 
gen. — The light of flame dependent upon the elevated tempe- 
rature. 

Three different portions in every flame. — The oxidizing and 
deoxidizing points. — Effect of introducing a tube into the 
dark or inner cone of the flame of a lamp. — Effect of a piece 
of fine wire gauze upon the surface of a flame.— Proof that 
the combustible gas rises through the meshes of the gauze.— 
Cooling effect of the wire-gauze upon the flame. — -Principle 
of the safety lamp explained. 

The argand burner. — Effect of mingling atmospheric air 
(oxygen) with coal gas, before burning. — The gas furnace of 
the chemist. — Necessity of a full supply of oxygen to give bril- 
liancy to the flame. 



CARBON. 55 



COMPOUND OF CARBON AND NITROGEN. 

Cyanogen. — Bicarhuret of Nitrogen. — Symbol; NC 2 , or 
Cy.— Equivalent, 14+12=26. 

Cannot be formed directly from its elements ; but is gene- 
rated by the decomposition of nitrogenized bodies, in the pre- 
sence of an alkali, — a cyanide of the metal being formed. — 
These cyanides are usually made by heating nitrogenized bodies 
in the air with carbonate of potassa. 

Cyanogen is best procured in a separate state by decompos- 
ing the cyanide of mercury by heat. 

Properties. — A colorless gas.— Odor of peach-kernels. — 
Absorbed by water, and still more by alcohol. — Liquefied by a 
pressure of three and a half atmospheres, at the temperature 
of 45°. — A non-supporter ef combustion, but burns with a 
roseate flame. — Products of combustion. — Specific gravity, 
1*80. — Analysis by oxygen. 

Cyanogen, though a compound body, resembles in its habi- 
tudes the halogen bodies Chlorine, Bromine, &c. — Classed 
among the " compound radicals." 

Paracyanogen. — Isomeric with cyanogen. — The most im- 
portant cyanides. 

COMPOUNDS OP CYANOGEN AND OXYGEN. 

Three isomeric bodies— cyanic acid, cyanuric acid, and 
fulminic acid. They are all, properly speaking, organic 
bodies. 

Cyanic acid. — (Cy 0, HO, or C a NO, HO.) — When cyanide 
of potassium is heated in the air, cyanate of potassa is formed ; 
but the acid cannot, practically, be separated from its base, the 
presence of water converting it into bicarbonate of ammonia. 
(C 3 NO, 3HO=C 2 4 , NH 5 .) 



56 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Cyanuric acid. — Cy 3 3 , 3HO. — Obtained by decomposing 
urea by heat ; the ammonia escapes, and the cyanuric acid 
remains, combining chemically with three atoms of water. 

When cyanuric acid is deprived of its water of crystalliza- 
tion, and is heated to redness, it is converted into hydrous 
cyanic acid. — Characters of cyanic acid. 

Fidminic Acid.— Gy 2 2 . — Never isolated. — Is developed 
by the action of nitrous acid on alcohol in the presence of a 
salt of silver, or of mercury. — Rationale. — Character of the 
fulminates. — Use of the fulminate of mercury. 

COMPOUND OF CYANOGEN AND HYDROGEN. 

Cyanhydric or Hydrocyanic Acid. — Prussic Acid. — Sym- 
bol, HCy.— Equivalent, 27. 

Discovered in 1782 by Scheele. — Exists widely in the vege- 
table world. 

Obtained, anhydrous, by passing dry sulphydric acid gas 
over cyanide of mercury, and condensing dry products. — 
Properties. — A colorless liquid, having a powerful odor and 
taste of bitter almonds. — Sp. grav. -7058. — Very volatile. — 
Boils at 79° F. — A very feeble acid. — Very easily decomposed. 
— A violent poison. — Symptoms. — Antidotes. 

Tests: 1. The silver test; 2. The iron test; 3. The cop- 
per test; 4. The sulphur test. — Mode of proceeding. 

Solution of cyanhydric acid made : 1. By action of chloro- 
hydric acid on cyanide of mercury and water; 2. By boiling 
dilute sulphuric acid on ferrocyanide of potassium (U. S. 
Phar.); 3. By tartaric acid on cyanide of potassium in solu- 
tion ; 4. Chlorohydric acid on cyanide of silver in water. 

Properties of the dilute acid. — Strength. — Scheele'sacid. — 
Effect of exposure to the light. — Strength of different speci- 
mens estimated. 



CHLORINE. 



COMPOUND OF CARBON AND SULPHUR. 

Bisulphide of Carbon. — Symbol, CS 2 . — Equivalent, 38. — 
Mode of preparing. — Properties. — Great volatility. — High 
refractive power. — Sp. grav. 1*27. — Odor. — Inflammability. 
— Solvent power. — Explosiveness of vapor. 



THE HALOGEN GROUP. 

Name, halogen, given by Berzelius to a group of elementary 
bodies, comprising chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine, 
together with one compound body — Cyanogen. — Reason for 
the name. — General characteristics of the group. 



CHLORINE. 



Symbol, CI. — Equivalent, 35-5. 

Exists in nature always in combination — generally as chlo- 
ride of sodium. Modes of obtaining : 1. By action of chloro- 
hydric acid on peroxide of manganese. — Rationale. — Products. 
2. By action of sulphuric acid, chloride of sodium, and perox- 
ide of manganese. — Rationale. — Products. 3. By action of 
nitric and chlorohydric acids. 

Supposed by Scheele to be a compound body, and named 
oxymuriatic acid. — Its true nature first ascertained by Davy. 
— Name. — Must be collected either over water at 90° F., or 
by displacement. 



58 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Properties. — Greenish-yellow color.— Excites violent irrita- 
tion when breathed into the lungs. — Sp. grav. 2-47. — Con- 
densed into a liquid by a pressure of four atmospheres. — 
Absorbed by water at common temperatures. 

Effect of exposure on the solution. 

Action on water at 30°. 

Its affinities for hydrogen much stronger than for oxygen. — 
A mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, how exploded. 

Chlorine a supporter of combustion in certain cases. — Its 
powerful bleaching qualities. — Moisture always necessary. — 
Bleaching by chlorine — how effected. — Used in medicine for 
fumigations. — The most important chlorides. 

Test for chlorine. — For a soluble chloride. 



BROMINE. 



Exists where in nature. — Discovered in 1826 by Ballard, 
of Montpellier. — Mode of extracting it from the bittern of sea- 
water. 

Properties. — A liquid. — Odor. — Taste. — Color. — Sp. grav. 
2-96.— Volatility.— Boils at 116° F.— Fuses a little below 0°. 
— Slightly soluble in water; much more so in alcohol and 
ether. — Color of vapor. — Bleaching properties. — Effect on the 
skin.— Its vapor supports combustion. 

Most important bromides. 

Test for bromine. — For a bromide. 



IODINE. 
Symbol, I. — Equivalent, 126. 



IODINE. 59 

Accidental discovery in 1812. — Extracts naturally in small 
quantities — in sea- water and sea- plants; also in springs. 

How procured from kelp. — Nature of kelp. 

Properties. — A solid. — Sp. grav. 4-94. — Color, taste, and 
smell. — Fusing-point. — Bleaching properties. — Color of the 
vapor best shown. — Sp. grav. of vapor 8-71. — Very slightly 
soluble in water ; more so in alcohol and ether ; also in a solu- 
tion of an iodide. — Lugol's solution. 

The affinities of iodine, though resembling those of chlorine 
and bromine, are less strong. 

Test. — Color of its vapor. — Starch. — Test for an iodide. 

Uses in the arts and medicine. — The most important iodides. 
— Antidote for its poisonous effects. 

COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE, BROMINE, AND IODINE, WITH 
HYDROGEN. 

Chlorohydric Acid. — Hydrochloric acid. 

Muriatic Acid.- — Symbol, HC1. — Equivalent, 36-5. For- 
merly named spirit of salt and marine acid. — First procured 
as a gas by Priestley, in 1772. 

Obtained by distilling together chloride of sodium and oil 
of vitriol. — Rationale. — Very rapidly absorbed by water. — 
Collected over mercury. 

Properties. — Condensed into a liquid by great pressure and 
cold.-— Sp. grav. 1*27. — A non-supporter of combustion and 
not combustible. — Effect on gaseous ammonia shown. — Ab- 
sorption by water shown. — Effect of heat, or of sulphuric acid 
on the solution. 

Solution of Chlorohydric Acid ; or Liquid Muriatic Acid. 
— How prepared. 

Properties.— Colorless, when pure — fumes in the air. — Yel- 
low color due to. — Sp. grav. of the strongest is 1-21, and ccn- 



60 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

tains 42 per cent, of real acid. The acid cannot exist without 
some water in combination. 

Commercial acid — how purified. 

Test. — Behavior with a metal. — With an oxide. 

Nitro-muriatic Acid ; or, Aqua reyia. — Proportion of in- 
gredients. — Rationale. — Properties. 

Bromohydric or Hydrobromic Acid, — HBr. — Obtained by 
action of water on bromine and phosphorus. — Rationale. — 
Properties. 

lodohydriCj or Hydriodic Acid. — HI. — Prepared as a gas, 
like bromohydric acid. — As a liquid, by passing sulphydric 
acid through water, holding iodine in suspension.— Rationale. 
— Properties of the solution. — Properties of the gas. 

COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE, BROMINE, AND IODINE, WITH 
OXYGEN. 

Hypochlorous Acid. — CIO. 

Procured by passing chlorine over red oxide of mercury sus- 
pended in water. — Rationale. 

Properties. — An orange-colored liquid. — Boils at 68°.—- Sp. 
grav. 2-9. — Explodes violently at 212°, being resolved into its 
elements. — Has powerful bleaching properties. — Forms hypo- 
chlorites. 

Nature of commercial bleaching salts. — How made. — Ra- 
tionale. 

The Euchlorine of Davy, is a mixture of chlorine and 
chlorochloric acid. — Properties. 

Chlorous Acid. — Hypochlorous acid.- — C10 s . — Properties. 
— A gaseous body; very easily decomposed; of a greenish- 
yellow color ; much absorbed by water. 

Procured by deoxodizing chloric acid, as by the action of 
nitric acid on a mixture of chlorate of potash and arsenious 
acid. — Rationale. — Forms chlorites. 



CHLORINE. 61 

Peroxide of Chlorine. — C10 4 . — (Graham.)— The chlorous 
acid of most writers. — Reason for the name. 

Mode of preparation, by distillation of sulphuric acid and 
chlorate of potassa. — Rationale. — Danger of preparing it. 

Properties.— A deep yellow-colored gas. — Extremely explo- 
sive. — Does not redden litmus. — Soluble in water. — The solu- 
tion bleaches. — Resembles the peroxide of nitrogen (N0 4 ) in 
many of its habitudes. — Its violent action on combustibles 
shown. 

Chloric Acid. — C10 5 . — The analogue of nitric acid. — Effect 
of passing chlorine gas through a strong solution of an alkali. 
— The acid obtained, in solution, by decomposing chlorate of 
baryta by sulphuric acid. 

Properties. — Character of the chlorates. 

Hi/perchloric Acid. — Perchloric Acid. — Oxy chloric Acid. — 
C10 7 . — The residue after making the peroxide of chlorine. — 
Prepared, also, by the action of hot nitric acid on chlorate of 
potassa. — Rationale. 

Properties. — A concentrated acid solution. — Much more 
permanent than the other compounds of chlorine and oxygen.— 
Has a strong affinity for moisture. — No bleaching properties. 

Bromic Acid. — Br0 5 . — The only known oxide of bromine. 
— Action of bromine on a solution of a caustic alkali resembles 
that of chlorine, with the same results. — The bromate of 
baryta decomposed by sulphuric acid. 

Properties. — Similar to those of chloric acid. 

Iodic Acid.— 10 5 . — Obtained by oxidizing iodine by means 
of nitric acid, with the aid of heat. 

Properties. — Crystalline. — Soluble in water. — Forms iodates 
which resemble the chlorates. 

Periodic Acid. — 10 7 . — Mode of preparation. — Properties. 

The halogen bodies form compounds with each other, thus : 
Chloride of Bromine. — BrCl s .- — A liquid. 

6 



G2 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Chloride of Iodine. — IC1. — A liquid. 

Terchloride of Iodine. — IC1 3 . — A solid. 

There are two Bromides of Iodine. 

Chloride of Nitrogen. — NC1 4 . — Prepared by inverting a 
bottle of chlorine gas over a solution of sal ammoniac. — Great 
danger in its preparation. — Properties. 

Iodide of Nitrogen. — I 2 HN. 

Prepared by the action of liquor ammonise on iodine. — Pro- 
perties. 

Chlorides of Sulphur. — S 2 C1 and SCI. — Mode of preparing 
them. — Properties. 

Chlorides of Phosphorus. — PC1 3 and PC1 5 . 

The first procured by passing chlorine over melted phospho- 
rus; the second, by the spontaneous inflammation of phos- 
phorus in chlorine. — Properties. 

Bromine and Iodine form compounds with phosphorus, 
similar to the above. 

Bromine and Iodine both form compounds with Sulphur. 



FLUORINE. 



Symbol, FL— Equivalent, 18. 

Only lately isolated. — Exists in nature chiefly in combina- 
tion with calcium, asfluor spar. — Found also in animals. — Its 
great tendency to form combinations. 

No compound with oxygen yet discovered. 

Fluohydric or Hydrofluoric Acid. — HF1. 

Mode of preparing similar to that for chlorohydric acid. — 
(Oil of vitriol on fluoride of calcium.) — Necessity for employ- 
ing a leaden retort.— Properties. — Effect on glass.— -Use in the 
arts. — Effect of acid solution on the skin. 



BORON. 63 

SILICIUM, OR SILICON. 

Symbol, Si. — Equivalent, 28. 

Exists in nature only in combination. 

Its nature. — Mode of obtaining it.— Properties. — Effect of 
heating in the air. 

Silica or Silex, — Silicic Acid. — Si0 3 . — The only known 
oxide. — Exists nearly pure in nature. — Modes of preparing it. 
—Reaction of fluoride of silicon on water. 

Properties. — Color. — Taste. — Smell. — Solubility. — Sp. 
grav. 2-66. — Infusibility. — Its acid properties demonstrated. 
— Its action in the manufacture of glass. — Soluble glass. 

Fluoride of Silicon — Fluosilicic Acid. — SiFl 3 . — Always 
made when fluohydric acid comes in contact with glass. — Ra- 
tionale. 

Properties. — A gaseous body.- — Colorless. — Forms white 
fumes in the air. — Sp. grav. 3-57. — Must be collected over 
mercury. 



BORON. 



Symbol, B. — Equivalent, 10;9. 

Closely allied to Silicon in properties. — Exists in nature as 
boracic acid and borax. — Prepared as Silicon.— Properties. 

Boracic Acid. — -B0 3 . — The only oxide. — Occurs in nature 
in the hot lagoons of Tuscany. — Prepared from borax by 
action of sulphuric acid. 

Properties. — How vitrified.— Used in blowpipe operations. 

Borax (Biborate of Soda). — Uses. 

Fluoride of Boron. — Fluohoric Acid. — BF 3 . — Resembles 
gaseous fluoride of silicon. — Preparation.— Decomposition by 
water. — Results. 



64 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



THE METALS. 



The metals comprise by far the largest number of elemen- 
tary bodies. — Seven only were known to the ancients. — The 
greater proportion are of rare occurrence, and of very little 
practical value in medicine; others, on the contrary, are of 
the utmost value. — Many are of comparatively recent dis- 
covery. — With few exceptions, they are found, in nature, 
combined with other elementary substances. 

Physical Properties. — They are all good conductors of heat 
and electricity; — possess a lustre, termed metallic; — are 
opaque. — (Apparent exception in the case of gold-leaf.) — 
Their prevailing color. — Great variation in their specific gra- 
vities; — the extremes. 

Certain properties possessed by some metals, and not by 
others : — 

1. Malleability. — The most malleable metals. 

2. Ductility. — Usually accompanies malleability. — The most 

ductile metals. 

3. Tenacity. — Mode of estimating it. — Iron the most tena- 

cious metal. 

4. The welding property. — Examples. 

5. Hardness. — Great difference, in this respect, among 

metals. 

6. Elasticity and Sonorousness. — These are closely allied to 

hardness. 

7. Crystallization. — The crystalline metals. 

8. Volatility. — The volatile metals. 



THE METALS. 65 

The fusibility of metals varies as nmcli as their density. — 
The extremes. 

The metals are electro-positive, with respect to other simple 
bodies. 

Believed to be elementary, or simple bodies; — having 
hitherto resisted all attempts at decomposition. 

They have never yet been transmuted into each other. 

Chemical Relations, — The metals possess an extensive range 
of affinities; — hence, are rarely found in a separate state. — 
They are most disposed to combine with simple bodies, as 
oxygen, sulphur, &c. — Effect of this combination. — Alloys. 

I. COMBINATION WITH OXYGEN. 

All are capable of uniting with oxygen, but differ greatly 
in their affinity for it ; — this affords a ground of classification. 

Modes of oxidizing metals : 

1. Some spontaneously decompose water, — from their powerful 

affinity for oxygen. — Examples. 

2. Some combine it rapidly at a high temperature. 

3. By deflagration with nitrate of potassa. 

4. By nitric acid. 

5. By nitro-muriatic acid. 

Modes of reducing metallic oxides : 

1. By heat alone, — when the affinity is weak. 

2. By heat and a combustible body, as hydrogen, carbon, or 

black flux. 

3. By deoxidizing agents, as carbonic oxide, phosphorous 

acid, &c. 

4. By the action of other metals. — Precipitation. 

Metals form, with oxygen, either acids or bases; — the latter 
the most numerous. — The lowest oxides are the most powerful 

6* 



66 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

bases ; — the highest are often destitute of basic properties, 
and are, on the contrary, acid. — Illustrations. 

The metallic oxides, generally, are insoluble in water. — 
Exceptions. 

II. COMBINATION WITH SULPHUR. 

General rule that the sulphides correspond, in number and 
composition, with the oxides. — Exceptions. — Characters of the 
sulphides. 

Combination with sulphur effected : 

1. By heating them together. 

2. By bringing the metal in contact with the vapor of sul- 

phur. 

3. By igniting together a metallic oxide and sulphur.. 

4. By acting on a sulphate by heat and a combustible. 

5. By sulphydric acid, or sulphide of ammonium. 

The sulphides are reduced: 

1. By exposure to the action of the air. — (Into sulphates.) 

2. By the combined action of heat and the air. — Results. 

3. A few by hydrogen, at a red heat. 

Sulphur not disposed to unite with an oxide. — Action, when 
boiled with an alkali. 

III. COMBINATION WITH THE HALOGEN GROUP. 

With chlorine. — The affinity very strong. 

The chlorides cannot be decomposed by heat alone, but by 
heat and hydrogen, or by oil of vitriol. — Characters of the 
chlorides. 

The same remarks apply to the combinations of the metals, 
with iodine, bromine, and fluorine. The cyanides are more 
easily decomposed. 



THE METALS. 67 



IV. COMBINATION WITH PHOSPHORUS AND CARBON. 

Effect of phosphorus and carbon on the character of metals. 

Tendency of metallic compounds to combine within their 
own series — as oxides with oxides, sulphides with sulphides, 
&c. — Results of combining an oxide and chloride, as chloro- 
hydric acid and oxide of iron ; or a sulphide and an oxide, — 
as the sulphide of arsenic and potassa. 



68 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SALTS. 

Former definition of the terms "acid" and "alkali." — 
Numerous exceptions. — Present restricted definition. — Defini- 
tion of a salt. 

Two distinct classes of salts : 

I. AMPHIGEN SALTS. 

Term "amphigen," how used by Berzelius. — They com- 
prise four divisions. — (1) Oxy-salts. — (2) Sulphur-salts. — (3) 
Selenium-salts. — (4) Tellurium-salts. For illustration, the 
oxy-salts, being by far the most common, may be taken as the 
types of the whole class. 

A neutral salt. — Constancy between the number of equiva- 
lents of its acid, and the equivalents of oxygen in the base. 

A sub, or basic salt. 

A super, or acid salt. 

II. THE HALOID, OR HALOGEN SALTS. 

Definition. — Distinction between the two classes. 

The binary theory, — an attempt to reconcile them. — Elus- 
trations. 

Double Salts. — Examples. 

Salts, nearly all solid, and crystalline at ordinary tempera- 
tures. — Of variable color. — Generally inodorous. — Sapid, if 
soluble. — They differ much in their affinity for water. — Deli- 
quescence. — Water of crystallization. — Efflorescence. — -Water 
of constitution. — Water mechanically confined. — Decrepita- 
tion. 



CRYSTALLIZATION. 69 



CKYSTALLIZATION. 

Crystallization — a property of nearly all bodies capable of 
assuming the solid form. — A crystal defined. 

Cause of crystallization. — The most perfect crystals when 
formed. 

Modes of forming crystals artificially : 

1. Solution in water — hot or cold, and evaporation. 

2. Fusion, and slow cooling. — Examples. 

3. Condensation of a vapor in cold surfaces. — Examples. 
Facts proving that crystals are formed according to a certain 

regular internal structure : — 1. Their growth, if placed in a 
saturated solution ; 2. Their cleavage ; 3. Their mode of ex- 
pansion by heat. 

Every substance has its own distinct crystalline form ; but 
some forms are common to numerous bodies. — Illustrations. — 
Dimorphism. 

Measurement of crystals. — The goniometer. — Faces of a 
crystal. — Edges. — Angles. 

Arrangement of crystals into six classes : 

1. The regular octohedral, or monometric system. 

2. The dimetric, or square prismatic system. 

3. The trimetric, or right prismatic system. 

4. The oblique prismatic system. 

5. The double oblique prismatic system. 

6. The rhombohedral system. 



70 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 

Passage of one crystalline form into another of the same 
natural group. — Examples. 

Isomorphism. — Definition. — The term not confined to crys- 
talline bodies, but extended to their elements. — Illustrations. 
— Isomorphous groups. 

Use of isomorphism in, determining the chemical composi- 
tion of a body. 

Physiological and therapeutical applications. 



CLASSIFICATION OF METALS. 

Division of metals into two classes : 

Class I. Those which are so readily oxidizable as 

TO BE UNFIT FOR USE IN THE METALLIC STATE. 

Class II. Those which are not so. 

The first class comprises three orders : 

1. The alkaline metals. 

2. The alkaline-earthy metals. 

3. The earthy metals. 



POTASSIUM. 71 



CLASS I. 

OEDER I. 

THE ALKALINE METALS. 

POTASSIUM. 

Symbol K (Kalium). — Equivalent, 39. 

Extensively diffused over the earth, in combination. Dis- 
covered by Davy, in 1807, by the agency of galvanism. — 
Present method of obtaining it, by the action of charcoal on 
carbonate of potash, by the aid of heat. — Rationale. — Mode 
of preserving it. 

Properties. — A brilliant white metal; soon tarnishing on 
exposure to the air. — Soft at common temperatures. — Hard at 
32°.— Melts at 150°, and volatilizes.— Sp. grav. -865. 

Effect when thrown on water. — Color of the flame. — Ex- 
planation. — Slower oxidation in the air. — Result in both cases. 

COMPOUNDS OF POTASSIUM AND OXYGEN. 

Protoxide of Potassium. — Potassa, or Potash. — Symbol, 
KO.— Equivalent, 47. 

Anhydrous — how made. — Properties. 

The hydrate — KO,HO. — Obtained by boiling together 
carbonate of potassa, lime and water, and rapidly concentrating. 
— Rationale. 

Properties. — When pure, grayish-white. — Solid. — Has a 
strong alkaline taste and reaction. — Powerfully caustic. — 



72 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Great affinity for water. — Very deliquescent. — Soluble in 
water, also in alcohol. — Used in surgery as a caustic (common 
caustic — lapis infernalis), in the form of sticks — made by 
fusing the hydrate, and running into moulds. — Exposed to the 
air, it rapidly absorbs moisture and carbonic acid. 

Its solution — liquor potassa — a valuable reagent to the che- 
mist. 

Peroxide of Potassium. — K0 3 . — Made by burning potas- 
sium in an excess of dry oxygen. — Properties. 

SALTS OF POTASSA. 

Carbonate of Potassa. — K0 ; C0 o . — Is found in the ashes 

of inland plants. 

Origin of the alkali in plants, and its mode of combination 
in the living plant. — Effect of incineration. — Variable quantity 
in plants. 

Pot and Pe aria slies. — Impurities. — Mode of purifying. — 
Salt of tartar. 

Properties. — Very deliquescent. — Very soluble in water. — 
Insoluble in alcohol. — Has a strong alkaline taste and reaction. 
— Fuses at a red heat. — Much used in medicine; and as a 
chemical reagent. 

Bicarbonate of Potassa.— KO/2C0 2 +HO; or KO.C0 2 + 

HO,C0 2 . — Mode of preparation. 

Properties. — A white salt, crystallizing in eight-sided prisms, 
less soluble than the carbonate ; nearly neutral to test-paper. 

By heat it is converted into the carbonate, by losing carbonic 
acid. — Used in medicine. 

The sesquicarbonate is doubtful. 

Sulphate of Potassa. — KO.S0 3 . — Mode of preparation. — 
Properties. — Anhydrous. — Crystallizes in six-sided prisms. — 



POTASSIUM. 73 

Very hard. — Soluble in ten parts of water. — Decrepitates in 
the fire.- — Used in medicine. 

Bisulpliate of Potassa. — KO,S0 3 +HO,S0 3 . — The residue 
in the retort after the preparation of nitric acid from the nitrate. 

Properties. — Crystalline. — Solubility. — Has a sour taste and 
acid reaction. 

Anhydrous Bisulpliate. — KO,2S0 3 . 

SesquisulpJiate.— HO ; S0 3 + 2 (KO,S0 3 ). 

Nitrate of Potassa (Saltpetre or Nitre). — KO,N0 5 . — 
Natural origin in the earth. — Mode of its formation. — Artificial 
nitre-beds. — Made directly by the action of nitric acid on car- 
bonate of potassa. 

Properties. — A white salt, — in six-sided prisms, — striated. 
— Fuses by heat. — Soluble in water. — Decomposes at a high 
temperature. — Antiseptic. — Deflagrates in the fire. — A strong 
supporter of combustion. 

Uses in the arts, and in chemistry. 

Composition of gunpowder. — Mode of manufacture. — Ra- 
tionale of its explosion, and its propelling power. 

Poisonous effects of nitre. 

Chlorate of Potassa. — KO,C10 5 . — Procured by passing 
chlorine through a solution of potassa. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Occurs in white tabular crystals. — Soluble in 
water. — A powerfully deflagrating agent, — yielding up all its 
oxygen, and leaving a residue of chloride of potassium.— It 
cannot be substituted for the nitrate in gunpowder. 

Perchlorate. — KO,C10 7 . — How obtained. — Properties. — A 
crystalline salt, sparingly soluble in water.— Less deflagrating 
than the chlorate. 

Iodate, KO,X0 5 . — Resembles the chlorate. 

Silicate, KO,Si0 3 . — Natural source of it in the soil. — Uses 
of it by plants. — Artificially made. 

7 



74 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Glass. — Its composition and varieties. 

Properties. — Mode of coloring. — Annealing process. 

Chloride of Potassium, KC1. — Obtained in the preparation 
of the chlorate. — Exists also in the ashes of sea-weed, and in 
kelp. 

Properties. — Very soluble. — Strongly resembles the chlo- 
ride of sodium. 

Used for making alum. 

Iodide of Potassium, KI. — Procured — (1.) By action of 
iodine in a strong solution of the carbonate. — (2.) By decom- 
posing iodide of iron by means of carbonate of potassa. 

Properties. — A white crystalline salt. — Very soluble in water. 
— Much used in medicine. — Its solution has the property of 
dissolving iodine. 

Bromide of Potassium, KBr. — Obtained as the iodide. — Pro- 
perties — Similar to those of the iodide. 

Cyanide of Potassium, KCy. — Prepared by heating the 
ferro cyanide. 

Properties. — Occurs in cubical crystals. — Deliquescent. — 
Very soluble. — Odor of the solution due to. — Danger of using 
it in medicine. 

The Ferrocyanide and Ferricyanide of Potassium (yellow 
and red prussiate), will be treated of under the head of Iron. 

Sulphides of Potassium. — KS; KS 3 ; and KS 5 . 

The protosulphide, KS, is made by heating the constituents 
together ; — or by heating the sulphate with charcoal. 

Properties. — A red crystalline mass. — Very soluble in water, 
and caustic in its action. 

The other sulphides are formed by fusing the protosulphide 
with different portions of sulphur. 

Hepar- Sulphuris (Liver of Sulphur). — Procured by fusing 
together different proportions of the carbonate and sulphur. 



SODIUM. 



Properties. — A very variable mixture of the two higher 
sulphides, and the hyposulphite and sulphate of potassa. — 
Formula. 



SODIUM. 



Symbol, Na (Natrium). — Equivalent, 23. 

Discovered by Davy, at the same time as potassium. — Mode 
of preparation similar to that of potassium. 

Exists, naturally, in combination, in sea-water, saline springs, 
rock-salt, and in the ashes of marine plants ; — also in animals. 

Properties. — Very similar to potassium. — Specific gravity, 
0-970. — Fuses at 194°.— -If exposed to the air, it tarnishes, 
and is speedily converted into the protoxide (soda). 

Action of water upon it. — Color of the flame. 

COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM AND OXYGEN. 

Protoxide of Sodium. — Soda. 
Symbol, NaO. — Equivalent, 31. 
Anhydrous — how made. — Properties. 

The hydrate, NaO,HO, — prepared as the hydrate of potassa; 
and its properties similar. 

Peroxide of Sodium. — Na0 3 . — As peroxide of potassium. 

SALTS OF SODA. 

Carlonate of Soda, NaO,CO 2 +10HO. 
Naturally exists in the ashes of marine plants, from which 
it was formerly obtained. — Kelp and barylla. 

Manufactured, at present, from common salt, by first con- 



76 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

verting it into a sulphate, and then decomposing, by means of 
charcoal and carbonate of lime. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Crystallizes in large transparent rhombs, when 
first made ; — very efflorescent. — Very soluble in water \ — has 
a strong alkaline reaction and taste. — Loses some of its water 
by heat. — Fuses. 

Much of the commercial carbonate is not crystalline ; — it is 
named Soda ash. 

Used in medicine, and as a reagent. 

Bicarbonate of Soda, Na0,C0 3 +H0,C0 a . 

Named also super carbonate. — Mode of preparation. 

Properties. — A white powder; — less soluble than the car- 
bonate, — much less alkaline. — Used in medicine. 

Sesquicarbonate of Soda. — 2NaO,3CQ 2 +4HO. — The 
native natron. — Sal-eeratus. 

Process involved in alkalimetry : — to ascertain the real 
quantity of alkali in the specimen, by finding how much of 
the latter is required to neutralize a known quantity of an 
acid of a standard strength. 

Sulphate of Soda. — Glauber's Salt— NaO,3O 3 +10HO. 
— Occurs in nature crystallized; also in springs.- — A con- 
stituent of sea-water. 

Mode of preparation. — The residue in making muriatic 
acid. 

Properties. — A crystalline salt, in four-sided prisms. — Ef- 
florescent. — More soluble in water at 90° than at 212°. — 
Fuses in its water of crystallization. 

Bisulphate of Soda.— NaO,S0 3 +HO,S0 3 . 

Made by action of sulphuric acid on the sulphate. — Very 
soluble. — Has an acid reaction. 

Hyposulphite of Soda. — NaO,S 2 O a . 

Preparation. — Used in photography. 



SODIUM. 77 

Nitrate of Soda. — NaO,N0 5 . — Cubical Nitre. — Found 
native in Peru. — Made by action of nitric acid on the carbo- 
nate. 

It crystallizes in rhombs. — Very soluble. — Deliquescent. — 
Used as a substitute for saltpetre in making nitric acid; but 
cannot be employed in the manufacture of gunpowder, on 
account of its absorbing moisture from the air. 

Chlorate of Soda. — KaO,C10 5 . — Resembles the chlorate 
of potassa. 

Hypochlorite of Soda. — (Chlorinated Soda.') — NaO ; C10. 
— Mode of preparation. — Nature. — Uses. 

Phosphates of Soda. — Three classes of them : 

I. Tribasic : 

1. Neutral tribasic phosphate.— 2NaO + HO,P0 5 + 24HO.— 

(Common phosphate.) Made by neutralizing super- 
phosphate of lime by carbonate of soda. 

Properties. — Crystalline, in oblique rhombic prisms. 
— Efflorescent. — Solubility. — Taste. — Heat converts it 
into the bibasic phosphate. 

2. Subphosphate, or alkaline tribasic phosphate. — 3NaO ; P0 5 

-f 24HO. Made by adding an excess of caustic soda to 
the preceding. 

Occurs in slender six-sided prisms. — Less soluble than 
the former. — Alkaline in its reaction. 

3. Acid tribasic phosphate. — Biphosphate. — NaO+2HO ; P0 5 

+2HO. 

Obtained by addition of phosphoric acid to the neutral 
phosphate. — Crystalline. — Effect of a high heat. 

Test. — They all give a yellow precipitate with nitrate 
of silver. 

II. Bibasic Phosphates : 

7 * 



78 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

1. Pyrophosphate.— 2NaO,PO 5 +10HO.— Obtained by heat- 

ing common phosphate. 

2. Bipyrophosphate.— HO,NaO,P0 5 . 

Test.— Both afford a white precipitate with nitrate of 
silver. 

III. Monobasic Phosphate. — Metaphosphate. — NaO,P0 5 . 
— Obtained by heating the biphosphate. — A transparent 
glassy substance. 

Test. — It yields a white precipitate with nitrate of 
silver. 

Tribasic Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia. — Microcosmic 
Salt— NaO+NH 4 0+HO ; P0 5 +8HO. 

Obtained by heating together common phosphate of soda, 
sal ammoniac and water. — Rationale. 

Much used in blowpipe operations. — Occurs sometimes in 
the urine. 

Biborate of Soda.— Borax.— NaO,2BO 3 +10HO. 

Found native in India. — Tincal. — Manufactured from bora- 
cic acid and carbonate of soda. 

Properties. — Crystalline, in six-sided prisms. — Sparingly 
soluble. — Efflorescent. 

Used medicinally, and in blowpipe experiments. 

Neutral Borate.— NaO ; B0 3 +HO. 

Chloride of Sodium.- — Common Salt.— NaCl. 
Native in sea-water and saline springs ; also as crystalline 
rock-salt. — Proportion in the ocean. 

Properties. — Taste. — Solubility. — Impurity. 

The Iodide, Bromide, and Sulphides, closely resemble the 
corresponding salts of potassium. 



SALTS OF AMMONIA. 79 



LITHIUM. 



Symbol, L. — Equivalent, 6*5. 

Obtained by the voltaic decomposition of lithia. 

Properties. — Resembles sodium. — Very easily oxidizes. 

Protoxide. — Lithia. — LO. — Exists in certain rare minerals. 
Properties. — Yfhite. — Less soluble than the other two alka- 
lies. — Forms salts. 



SALTS OF AMMONIA. 

These are most conveniently studied in the present connec- 
tion. 

Ammonium. — NH 4 . — -A hypothetical metal.— Never iso- 
lated. 

Modes of making the ammoniacal amalgam. 

Properties. — Its spontaneous decomposition. 

Oxide of Ammonium. — Ammonia. — NH 4 ; or NH 3 ,HO. 
— Already treated of. — A powerful alkali. 

Carbonate of Ammonia. — NH 4 ; C0 2 . — Anhydrous. — 
Mode of preparing. — Properties. 

Sesquicarbonate. — The carbonate of pharmacy. — 2NH 4 0, 
3CO a . — Preparation. — Rationale. — Properties. — Effect of ex- 
posure. — Use. 

Sulphate of Ammonia. — NH 4 0,S0 3 +HO. 
Mode of obtaining.— Preparation on a large scale. — Pro- 
perties. 

Nitrate of Ammonia, — NH 4 ; N0 5 . 



80 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Preparation. — Appearance. — Properties. — Use in the labo- 
ratory. 

Phosphate of Ammonia.— 2NH 4 ; HO, P0 5 + HO.— Made 
by decomposing superphosphate of lime by carbonate of am- 
monia. — Used in medicine. 

Chloride of Ammonium. — Sal Ammoniac. — NH 4 C1. — 
Formerly obtained from Egypt. — Mode of manufacture. 
Properties. — Effect of heat. 

Sulphides of Ammonium. — Several of them. — The bisul- 
phide — NH 4 S 2 — is made by passing sulphuretted hydrogen 
through solution of ammonia. — Properties. — Uses in chemistry. 

Tests for salts of ammonia. 



BARIUM. 81 



ORDER n. 

METALS OF THE ALKALINE EARTHS. 

These are Barium, Strontium, Calcium, and Magnesium. 

BARIUM. 

Symbol, Ba. — Equivalent, 68*5. 

Obtained by Davy, by voltaic decomposition of carbonate of 
baryta. — -Properties. — Name. 

Protoxide. — Baryta. — BaO. 

Obtained by calcining the nitrate. 

Properties. — A grayish powder. — Sp. grav. 4. — Strong 
affinity for water. — Solubility. Use of the solution in the 
laboratory. 

Peroxide of Barium, — Ba0 2 . — Mode of preparing. — Use. 

SALTS OF BARYTA. 

Carbonate. — BaO,CO a . — Native, as Witherite. — Artificially 
made. — Properties. 

Sulphate.— BaO,S0 3 . — Native, as heavy spar. — Sp. grav. 
4-5. — Preparation. — Use. 



82 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Nitrate. — BaO,N0 5 . — Preparation. — Solubility. — Used as 
a reagent. 

Chloride of Barium. — BaCl. — Preparation. — Solubility. — 
Used as a reagent. 

Iodide. — Bal. — Made as the chloride, and its properties 
similar. 

Sulphide. — BaS. — Prepared by heating the sulphate with 
charcoal. 

Tests for the salts of baryta. 



STRONTIUM. 

Symbol, Sr. — Equivalent, 48-8. 

Name. — Mode of preparation. — Properties. 

Protoxide. — Strontia. — SrO. — Preparation. 
Properties. — Similar to those of baryta. 

Peroxide, Sr0 2 . — Resembles peroxide of barium. 

SALTS OF STRONTIA. 

Carbonate. — SrO,C0 2 (Strontianite). — Native. — Proper- 
ties. 

Sulphate. — SrO,S0 3 ( Celestine). — Native. — Solubility. 

Nitrate. — SrO,N0 5 . — Preparation. — Properties. — Used in 
pyrotechny. — Red fire. 

Chloride of Strontium. — SrCl. — Preparation. — Solubility. 

Tests for salts of strontium. 



CALCIUM. 83 



CALCIUM. 



Symbol, Ca. — Equivalent, 20. 

Obtained as Barium and Strontium. — Properties. 

Protoxide. — Lime. — CaO (Quicklime). 

Obtained by calcining the carbonate. — Preparation of pure 
lime. — Impurities in common lime. 

Properties. — Density. — Color. — Phosphorescence. — Effect 
of water ; — hydrate of lime or slacked lime. — Cause of the 
heat evolved in slacking. — Solubility in water. — Lime-water. 
— Properties of lime-water; — effect of exposure to the air. — 
Milk of lime. 

Use of lime in the arts. — Composition of mortars. — Hy- 
draulic mortars. — Use of lime in agriculture. 

Peroxide of Calcium. — CaO a . — Preparation. — Uses. 

SALTS OF CALCIUM. 

Carbonate of Lime. — CaO,CO a . 

Natural varieties : — Limestone, Marble, Iceland Spar, and 
Arragonite. 

Properties. — Solubility in water. — Hard waters. — Mode of 
remedying. 

Stalactites. — Petrifying wells. 

Sulphate. — CaO,S0 3 . — Native, — as Gypsum and Selenite; 
— also anhydrous, as Anhydrite. 

Artificially made. — Solubility in water. — Use of native gyp- 
sum as a manure, and for taking casts. 

The sulphate of lime a common impurity of hard waters. 

Phosphates. — They correspond, in number and in composi- 



84 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

tion, to the phosphates of soda. — Mode of preparation. — Inso- 
lubility in pure water. — Solubility in dilute acids. 
State of combination in the blood and urine. 

Nitrate. — CaO ; N0 5 +6HO. — Preparation. — Deliquescence. 
— Solubility. 

Chloride of Calcium. — CaCl. — Preparation. 
Properties. — Uses of the anhydrous salt. 

Fluoride of Calcium. — Fluor Spar. — Derbyshire Spar. — 
CaFl. — Native. — Uses. 

The Iodides and Bromide resemble the corresponding salts 
of Barium and Strontium. 

Chlorinated Lime. — Bleaching Salt. — Mode of preparing. 
— Improperly called Chloride of Lime. — Composition. — Vari- 
able strength. — Properties. 

Effect of the atmosphere. — Mode of using it for bleaching, 
and as a disinfectant. 

Sulphide of Calcium. — CaS. — Obtained by heating the 
sulphate with charcoal. 

The higher sulphides are made by boiling lime with sul- 
phur. 

Phosphide of Calcium. —Preparation. — Action of water. — 

Use. 

Test for lime. 



MAGNESIUM. 



Symbol, Mg. — Equivalent, 12-2. 

Obtained by decomposing the chloride, by sodium and heat. 



MAGNESIUM, bo 

Properties. — A grayisli-colored metal, — fusible at a red heat, 
— burns in the air, being converted into magnesia. 

Protoxide. — -Magnesia. — MgO. — -The only oxide. 

Obtained by calcining tbe carbonate. — Called magnesia 
usta. — Procured, also, by precipitation. 

Properties. — Forms a hydrate with water ; — almost insoluble 
in water. — Though apparently a feeble alkali, it nevertheless 
will neutralize a large quantity of acid. 

Effect of ammonia on a soluble salt of magnesia. 

How estimated in analysis. 

SALTS OF MAGNESIUM. 

Carbonate of Magnesia — MgO,C0 2 — The neutral car- 
bonate. — Occurs native; — anhydrous, as magnesite, or in 
crystals. 

Artificially as a hydrate, — by dissolving magnesia alba in 
carbonic acid water, and evaporating. 

Magnesia Alba. — A hydro-carbonate. 

Formula, 3 (MgO,C0 2 ,HO)+MgO,HO.— Properties. 

Native dolomite. 

Sulphate of Magnesia.— Epsom Salt— MgO,S0 3 +7HO. 

Natural sources. — Mode of obtaining from sea- water; — 
from magnesian limestone. — From soapstone. 

Properties. — Shape of crystals ; — taste ; — solubility. — Effect 
of heat. 

Phosphate of Magnesia.— 2MgO,HO + P0 5 . 
Made by decomposing the carbonate, by a solution of com- 
mon phosphate of soda. 

Shape of crystals. — Solubility. 

Phosphate of Magnesia and, Ammonia , or Ammonio-mag- 

nesian Phosphate.— 2M^U ) NUJ3 + V0 5 -+12I10. 

8 



86 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Preparation. — Its production a test of the presence of mag- 
nesia. 

A constituent of urinary calculi ; — also of guano. 

Silicates. — Varieties : — Soajpstone, Steatite, Hornblende, 
Serpentine, &c. 

Chloride of Magnesium. — MgCl. — Preparation. — Proper- 
ties. 

Tests for magnesia. 



ALUMINUM. 87 



OEDER III. 
METALS OF THE EARTHS PROPER. 



ALUMINIUM, OR ALUMINUM. 

Symbol, Al. — Equivalent, 13-7. 

Obtained by beating togetber tbe cbloride and potassium or 
sodium. 

Properties. — A whitish metal, resembling silver.— Decom- 
poses water at 212°. — Burns in the open air. — Requires a high 
temperature to fuse. 

Sesquioxide — alumina. — A1 2 3 . — The only oxide known. — 
Its composition inferred from its isomorphism with sesquioxide 
of iron. — Preparation. — Abundance in nature. — Feldspar. — 
Clay. 

Uses of clay — to the soil, and for pottery. 

Native forms of alumina. 

Properties. — A feeble base, forming salts of an acid reac- 
tion.—- Affinity for water, forming a hydrate. — Attraction for 
organic coloring matters. — Use as a mordant. 

SALTS OF ALUMINUM. 

Sulphate of Alumina.— Al 2 3 ,3S0 3 +18HO. 
Obtained from alum. — Properties. 
Tendency to unite with other sulphates. 



85 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Sulphate of Alumina and Potassa — Alum. — A1 2 3 ,3S0 3 
+KO,S0 3 + 24HO. —Native variety.— Several modes of 
manufacture. — Impurity. 

Properties. — Color. — Shape of crystals. — Taste. — Solubility. 
— Effect of heat. — Dried Alum. 

Hornberg's pyrophorus. — Composition. 

Soda and ammonia alums. — Iron, manganese, and chrome 
alums. 

Silicates of Alumina. — Varieties of day. — Origin from 
feldspar. — Marls. 

Earthenware and Porcelain. — Essentially, silicates of alu- 
mina. — Difference between true porcelain, and earthen or stone 
ware. 

Sort of clay used for porcelain. — Grlazing. — Biscuit ware. — 
Stone ware. — Hessian crucibles. 

Chloride of Aluminum. — A1 2 C1 3 .— Obtained. 
There exist also a sulphide and a fluoride. 
Tests for alumina salts. 



GLUCINUM, OR BERYLLIUM. 

Name. — Symbol, Gr, or Be. — Equivalent, 6 9. 

Glucina or Berylla. — & 2 3 . — Where found. 

The other metals of the earths are Yttrium,, Erbium, Ter- 
bium, Zirconium , Cerium, Lanthanum, Dldymium, and 
Thorium, — each of which forms an oxide. 



MANGANESE. 



CLASS II. 

METALS WHICH ARE NOT TOO OXIDIZABLE TO 
BE USED IN THE METALLIC STATE. 

OEDEB I. 

METALS WHOSE OXIDES ARE POWERFUL BASES. 



MANGANESE. 

Symbol, Mn. — Equivalent, 27*7. 

Diffused throughout nature. — Often associated with iron. — 
Preparation. 

Properties. — A hard, grayish metal, resembling cast iron. — 
Sp. grav. 8. —Has a strong affinity for oxygen. — Difficult to 
fuse.— Forms seven compounds with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — MnO. — The most basic. 

Mode of obtaining. — Color. — Affinity for oxygen. 

Obtained as a hydrate by precipitation.— Effect of exposure. 

Sesquioxide. — Mn 2 3 . — Occurs native in the Hartz Moun- 
tains. — The residue, in heating the binoxide. — Color, black or 
brown. — A feeble base.' — Isomorphous with alumina. 

Binoxide — Peroxide. — Mn0 2 .— The most common of the 

8* 



90 INoilOANlC CHEMISTRY. 

manganese ores. — Occurs usually massive, combined with iron, 
silex, and lime ; — sometimes crystalline. 

Obtained, by calcining the nitrate of the protoxide, or by the 
action of chlorinated lime on a protosalt. 

Properties. — Black. — Neutral. — Insoluble in water. — Much 
used in the laboratory, and in the arts. 

Red Oxide.— Mn 3 4 , or rather MnO + Mn 2 3 . 
Found native. — Artificially made. — Uses. — Action of a' 
strong acid upon it. — Very permanent. 

Varvacife. —blnftj. — A natural product of Warwickshire, 
England. — Crystalline. 

Manganic Acid. — Mn0 3 . — Obtained as manganate of po- 
tassa. — Cannot be isolated. 

Mineral Chameleon. — Effect of exposure. — Action of water. 

Permanganic Acid. — Mn 3 7 . — Obtained as permanganate 
of potassa. — Not isoiable. — Properties. 

SALTS OF MANGANESE. 

Carbonate. — MnO,CO a . — Procured by precipitation, by an 
alkaline carbonate on the protochloride.— Properties. 

Sulphate. — MnO,S0 3 . — Preparation. — Properties. — Use in 
dyeing. — Isomorphous with sulphate of magnesia. 

Protochloride. — MnCl. — The residue in the preparation of 
chlorine from the binoxide. — Properties. 

Sesquichloride. — Mn 2 Cl 3 . — Made by the action of chloro- 
hyclric acid on the sesquioxide. 

Tests for manganese salts : Alkalies; — Sulphide of Ammo- 
nium ; — Ferrocyanide of potassium ; — The production of the 
mineral chameleon. — Action of the blowpipe. 



IKON. 91 



IRON. 



Symbol, Fe. (Ferrum.) — Equivalent, 28. 

Great importance in the arts. — Known to the ancients. — ■ 
Found pure in nature ; though generally mineralized. — Usual 
combinations. — Most important iron ores. — Metallurgy of iron. 
— Construction and operation of the hlast furnace. — Cast iron. 
— Varieties. — Impurities. — The puddling furnace. — Malle- 
able iron. — Varieties. 

Properties of malleable iron. — Texture. — Tenacity — Weld- 
ing. — Brittieness by constant motion. — Example. 

Properties of pure iron. — Color. — Sp. grav. 7*8. — Does not 
oxidize in dry air, nor in pure water. — Tendency to rust in 
moist air. — Composition of iron-rust. — Action on water, at a 
red heat. — Action of dilute acids on iron. 

Obtained chemically pure by action of hydrogen on the 
oxide. — Properties. 

Iron forms four compounds with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — FeO. — A strong base, isomorphous with mag- 
nesia, &c. Impossibility of isolating it. Preparation as a 
hydrate. — Effect of exposure to the air. — Color of its salts. 

JSesquioxide — Peroxide. — Fe 2 3 . — Abundance in nature. 
— as specular iron ore (crystalline), and red and brown hema- 
tite. — Artificially made. 

Properties. — A feeble base, isomorphous with alumina. — 
Color. — Solubility. — Color of its salts. — Use of the hydrated 
oxide in medicine. 

Black Oxide. — Fe 3 4 , or FeO+Fe 2 3 . — Occurs native, as 
loadstone.— A. valuable ore. — Artificially made. — Does not 
form salts. 



92 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Ferric Acid. — Fe0 3 . — Isomorphous with manganic acid. — 
Cannot be isolated, but obtained as a ferrate of potash. — Pro- 
perties. 

SALTS OF IRON. 

Carbonate. — FeO,C0 2 +HO. — Native varieties : — Spathic 
iron-ore (crystalline). — Composition and argillacious iron-ore. 

Artificially made. — Color. — Changes on exposure. — Mode 
of preventing. — Vallet's Preparations. 

Insolubility in pure water. — Chalybeate waters. — Effect of 
boiling, or of exposure of such waters. 

Sulphate. — FeO,S0 3 +7HO. — Isomorphous with Epsom 
salt, &c. 

Mode of obtaining pure. — Common mode of manufacturing. 
— Commercial name. 

Solubility. — Change of solution on exposure. 

Sesquisulphate. — Persulphate. — Fe 2 3 ,3S0 3 . — Mode of pre- 
paration. — Appearance when dried. — Effect of an alkali, or 
of an alkaline carbonate. — Forms an alum with sulphate of 
potash. 

Protonitrate. — FeO,NG 5 . — Mode of preparation. — Forms 
green crystals ;— not permanent. 

Sesquinitrate Pernitrate. — Fe 2 3 ,3N0 3 . — Mode of pre- 
paration. — Properties. — Use in medicine. 

Phosphate. — Citrate. — Acetate, &c. 

Protochloride. — FeCl. — Modes of procuring. — Properties. 
— Liability to change on exposure. 

Sesquichloride. — Perchloride — Fe 2 Cl 3 . — Preparation.— Ap- 
pearance. 

Tincture of the chloride used in medicine. 



IRON. 93 

Protiodide. — Fel. — Mode of preparation. — Appearance. — 
Properties. — Effect of iron wire on the permanency of the solu- 
tion. — Used in medicine. 

Sesquiodide — Periodide. — Fe 2 T 3 . — More permanent than 
the former. 

Protosulphide — FeS. — Mode of procuring. — Use in the 
laboratory. — Properties. 

Action of sulphydric acid on a salt of iron. — Action of sul- 
phide of ammonium. 

Sesquisidphide. — Fe 2 S 3 . 

Bisulphide. — FeS 2 . — A native ore. — Known as Fool's gold. 
There is likewise a native magnetic pyrites. 

Carburets of Iron. — Cast iron and steel. — Proportion of 
carbon. — Modes of manufacturing steel. — Varieties. —Modes 
of hardening. 

Phosphide of Iron. — Effect of the phosphorus. 

Cyanide of Iron. — FeCy. — Preparation. 

Ferrocyanogen. — FeCy 3 , or Cfy. — A compound radical, not . 
isolable. — Bibasic. 

Ferrocyanide of Potassium. — Yellow Prussiate of Potash 
— 2K,FeCy 3 , or 2KCfy. — Mode of preparing the salt. — A 
more simple view of its composition, as being a double salt 
(FeCy+2KCy) — cyanide of iron and potassium, — not the cor- 
rect one. — Proof that the cyanogen and the iron are combined 
together in a peculiar mode. 

Ferrocyanide of Iron — Prussian Blue — Fe 4 ,3(FeCy ) ; or 
Fe^SCfy. — Prepared by adding ferrocyanide of potassium to a 
persalt of iron. — Properties. — Uses. 

Ferricyanogen. — Fe 2 Cy 6 , or Cfdy. — A compound radical, 
not isolable. — Resembling ferrocyanogen. — Tribasic. 



94 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Ferricyanide of Potassium. — Red Prussiate of Potash. — 
3K,Fe 2 Cy 6 , or 3K,Cfdy. — Mode of preparation. — Properties. 
Mode of viewing it as a double salt. — (Fe a Cy 3 +3KCy.) 

Ferricyanide of Iron. — TurnbulVs Blue. — 3Fe,Cfdy, or 
3Fe,Fe 2 Cy 6 . — Prepared by adding the ferricyanide of potas- 
sium to a protosalt of iron. — Appearance. 

Tests for Protosalts of Iron. — (1.) Color. — (2.) Alkalies. 
— (3.) Alkaline carbonates.— (4.) Ferricyanide of potassium. 
— (5.) Sulphide of ammonium. 

Tests for Per salts. — (1.) Color.— (2.) Alkalies.— (3.) Al- 
kaline carbonates.— (4.) Tannic acid. — (5.) Ferrocyanide of 
potassium. — (6.) Sulphide of ammonium. 



COPPER. 

Symbol; Cu (Cuprum). — Equivalent, 31*7. 

Name. — Known to the ancients. — General diffusion through- 
out nature. — Occasionally found pure in crystals. — Localities. 

Most common ores — yellow and gray copper ores. — Most 
important localities of these ores. 

Mode of reducing copper pyrites. — How chemically pure. 

Properties. — Color. — Film on sheet copper. — Specific gra- 
vity, 8*9.— Malleability and ductility. — A good conductor of 
heat and electricity. — Not affected in dry air. — Influence of 
moist air. — Result of heating to redness in the air, or oxygen. 
— Effect of acids, dilute and strong. 

It forms three compounds with oxygen. 

Suboxide — Dioxide — Red Oxide. — C u 2 . 



COPPER. 95 

Occurs native in octohedral crystals. — Artificially made. — 
Action of grape sugar on a protosalt of copper. — Properties. 

It forms colorless unstable salts. — Use in the manufacture 
of glass. 

Effect of copper on a solution of ammonia ; in the air. 

Protoxide. — Black Oxide. — CuO. 

Obtained by heating copper in the air ; or better by calcining 
the nitrate. 

Properties. — Strongly basic. — Facility of reduction in con- 
tact with organic bodies. — Use in organic analysis. 

Obtained as a hydrate. — Effect of boiling. — Action of am- 
monia. 

The Binoxide— Cu0 2 — is said to exist. 

SALTS OF COPPER. 

Sulphate.— CuO ; S0 3 +5HO. (Blue vitriol.) 

Manufactured on a large scale. — Mode of obtaining chemi- 
cally pure. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Color. — Isomorphous with. — Forms double 
salts. — Effect of heat. — Action of ammonia. 

There is also a subsulphate. 

Nitrate.— CuO ; N0 5 +3HO. 
Action of nitric acid on copper. 

Properties. — Color. — Deliquescence.— Acid, corrosive ac- 
tion. — Action on tinfoil. 

Carbonates.- — The sub carbonate, 2CuO ; C0 2 +HO, forms on 
copper when exposed to moist air. 

The hydrocarbonate, CuO ; C0 2 +CuO ; HO ; is formed by the 
action of carbonate of soda on sulphate of copper. 

Composition of native malachite. 
Verdlter obtained. — Use. 



96 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Acetate (neutral). — Mode of obtaining. — Properties. 

Subacetate — Diacetate — Verdigris. — Mode of manufac- 
ture. — Properties. — Uses. 

Arsenite (Scheele's green). — Properties. — Uses. 

Subchloride, — Dichloride. — Cu a Cl. — Modes of forming. — 
Properties. 

Protochloride. — CuCl. — Preparation. — Color. — Solubility. 

JSubsulpJiide. — Cu 2 S. — Native, as copper glance. — Artifi- 
cially made. 

ProtosidpMde. — CuS. — Preparation. — Color. 

Ammoniated Copper.— Mode of preparing. — Composition. 

— Uses. 

Alloys of Copper. — Brass, bronze, and gun-metal ; bell- 
metal; sjiecidum metal. — Bronze of the ancients. — Common 
bronze. 

Tests for protosalts : (1) Alkalies. — (2) Ammonia. — (3) 
Ferrocyanide of potassium. — (4) Sulphydric acid. — (5) Alka- 
line carbonates, — (6) Albumen. — (7) Precipitation on iron. 

Poisonous effects of copper and its salts. — Antidotes. 



ZINC. 

Symbol, Zn., — Equivalent, 33. 

Always found mineralized. — Most common ores. — Cala- 
mirie, bow reduced.- — Distillation by descent. 

Properties. — Color. — Brittleness. — Malleability above 212°. 



zinc. 97 

— Crystals. — Effect of exposure. — Sp. grav. 6*8 to 7*2. — Fus- 
ing-point, 773°. — Combustion in the air. — Product. 

Effect of dilute acids. 

Impurities of commercial zinc or spelter. 

It forms only one compound with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — ZnO. — Procured by burning metallic zinc in 
the air; also by heating the carbonate. 

Properties. — Appearance. — Solubility in acids. 
Its salts isomorphous with those of magnesia, &c. 
Effect of an alkali on a salt of zinc. 
Use of the oxide as a pigment. 

SALTS OF ZINC. 

Sulphate (white vitriol). — ZnO ; SO B +6HO. — Isomorphous 
with sulphate of magnesia, &c. 

Mode of preparation on a large scale. — Properties. — Uses. 

Carhonate. — ZnO,C0 2 +HO. — Found native as calamine. 
— Neutral. — When obtained by precipitation by an alkaline 
carbonate, it is a hydrocarbonate, as in the case of magnesia. 

Properties. — Use in medicine. 

Chloride. — ZnCl — (Butter of zinc.) 
Modes of preparation. — Properties. — Uses. 

Sulphide ZnS. — (Zinc Blende.) — A native product. — 

Artificially made. — Properties. 

Iodide. — Znl. — Preparation. — Properties. — Use. 

Tests : (1) Alkalies. — (2) Ferrocyanide of potassium. — (3) 
Sulphydric acid. 

9 



98 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



CADMIUM. 

Symbol; Cd. — Equivalent, 55-8. 

Usually found associated with zinc. — Mode of reducing the 
ore. — Separated from zinc by making an acid solution, and 
using sulphydric acid. 

Properties. — White, like tin; malleable and ductile; — Sp. 
grav. 8*7. — Volatile. — Fuses below 500°. — Burns in the air. 
— Best solvent. 

Protoxide. — CdO. — The only oxide. — Made by burning the 
metal in the air. — Color. 

SALTS OF CADMIUM. 

Sulphate.— CdO,S0 3 +4HO. — Preparation. — Resembles 
sulphate of zinc. — Used in medicine. 

Chloride. — CdCL— Preparation. 

Sulphide. — CdS. — Preparation. — Color. — How distin- 
guished from sulphide of arsenic. 

Tests : (1) Caustic alkalies. — (2) Sulphydric acid, or sul- 
phide of ammonium. 



LEAD. 

Symbol, Pb (Plumbum).— Equivalent, 103-7. 

Known to the ^ancients. — Found in nature mineralized. — 
The sulphide (galena), the most abundant ore. — How re- 
duced. 



LEAD. 99 

Properties. — Color. — Malleability and ductility. — Tenacity. 
— Sp. grav. 11*45. — Fusing-point.— Crystals obtained. 

Effects of exposure to moist air. — Result of melting in tlie 
air. 

Action of pure soft water. — Effects of salts in the water. — 
Action of the acids. 

Forms four compounds with oxygen. 

Suboxide. — Dioxide. — Pb 2 0. — Constitutes the film on the 
surface of lead on exposure. — Procured also from the oxalate. 
— Does not form salts. 

Protoxide. — PbO.— A strong base. — Mode of preparing. — 
Massicot and Litharge. 

Properties. — Uses in the arts. 

It forms numerous salts. 

Mode of obtaining as a hydrate. 

Binoxide. — Peroxide (brown or puce oxide). — Pb0 2 . — 
Obtained by the action of nitric acid on red lead. — Rationale. 

Properties.— Action of heat; — of chlorohydric acid; — of 
sulphurous acid; — of ammonia. 

Minium, or Red Lead. — 2PbO+Pb0 2 . 
Mode of preparation. — -Variable composition. 
Properties. — Uses. — Effect of heating. 

SALTS OF LEAD. 

Carbonate. — PbO,C0 2 .— (White lead, — Cereuse.) 
Occurs native, in crystals. — Made by precipitation. 
Mode of manufacture. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Color. — Weight. — Solubility in water and 
acids. — Use as a pigment. 

Sulphate.-- PbO,S0 3 . — How formed. — Insolubility. 



100 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Nitrate. — PbO,N0 5 . — Action of nitric acid on lead.- — Solu- 
bility. 

The suhnitrate — how procured. 

Acetate (neutral).— Sugar of lead.— PbO ; C 4 H 3 3 +3HO.— 
Preparation. 

Properties. — Color. — Shape of crystals. — Odor and taste. — 
Action of the air.— Solubility. — Color of the solution. — Use 
in medicine. — Poisonous properties. 

Subacetate. — Great tendency of lead to form sub or basic 
salts. 

Goulard's Extract, probably a trisacetate. — 3PbO ; C 4 H 3 3 
+HO. — Mode of preparing. — Solubility. — Effect of common 
water. 

Lead-water. — Use in medicine. 

Chromate. — PbO,Cr0 3 — Chrome yellow. — Use. 

Chloride. — PbCl. — Modes of forming. 
Properties. — When fused, constitutes plumbum corneum. 
— Distinguished from chloride of silver. 
Subchlorides of Lead. 

Iodide. — Pbl. — Preparation. — Properties. 

Bromide. — PbBr. — As the Iodide. 

Proto sulphide. — Native galena. — PbS. 
Mode of preparation.- — Properties. 

Persulphide. — PbS 2 . — Preparation. 

Tests : (1) Caustic potash and soda. — (2) Alkaline carbo- 
nates. — (3) Chlorohydric acid, or a soluble chloride. — (4) 
Iodide of potassium. — (5) Sulphuric acid. — (6) Chromate of 
potash. — (7) Sulphydric acid. 

Alloys of Lead. — Fine and coarse solder. — Composition. — 
Fusibility. 



BISMUTH. 101 



BISMUTH. 



Symbol, Bi. — Equivalent, 71. 
Occurs mostly in the metallic state. 
Obtained pure from the nitrate. 

Properties. — Color. — Structure. — Specific gravity, 9*9. 
Melting-point, 500°. — Burns in the air. — Proper solvent. 
Its alloys remarkable for their fusibility. — Rose's fusible 
metal. — Other alloys. 

It forms two compounds with oxygen. 

Suboxide. — Bi 2 0. — Formed by the action of chloride of 
tin on the subnitrate. 

Protoxide. — BiO. — Made by burning bismuth in the air, or 
by heating the subnitrate. 
Properties. 

SALTS OF BISMUTH. 

Nitrate. — BiO,N0 5 -f 3HO. — Preparation. 
Appearance of crystals. — Effect of water. 

Subnitrate.— 3BiO,N0 5 +HO.— Made by throwing the 
nitrate into water. — Bationale. 
Properties. — Uses. 

Chloride. — BiCl. — Obtained by throwing powdered bismuth 
into chlorine. 

Properties. — Effect of water. 

Tests* — (1.) Water on the protosalts. — (2.) Sulphydric 
acid. 

9* 



102 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



COBALT. 

Symbol, Co. — Equivalent, 29*5. 

Occurs in nature, associated with nickel and arsenic. — A 
constituent of meteoric iron. — Name. 

Procured by heating the oxalate with charcoal. 

Properties. — Color. — Brittleness. — Specific gravity, 8-5. — 
Magnetic. 

It forms two compounds with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — CoO.— Obtained, by calcining the carbonate. — 
As a hydrate. — Properties. 

Its salts, isomorphous with those of magnesia. 

Sesquioxide. — Co 2 3 . — Mode of preparation. — Does not 
form salts. 

SALTS OF COBALT. 

Sulphate. — CoO,S0 3 +7HO. — Isomorphous with sulphate 
of magnesia. — Preparation. 
Properties. 

Carbonate. — CoO,C0 2 +CoO,HO. — Preparation. 

Chloride.— CoCl. — Prepared by the action of chlorohydric 
acid on the oxide. — Change of color of the crystals, in passing 
from the moist to the dry state. — Sympathetic ink. 

Effect of the oxide of cobalt on glass. — Smalt, — Speiss,— 
Zaffre, — Cobalt Blue. 

Tests: — (1.) Solution of potassa. — (2.) Change in color of 
the chloride. — (3.) The blowpipe. 



NICKEL. 103 



NICKEL. 



Symbol. NL— Equivalent, 29*6. 
Occurs in nature, as cobalt; — Name. 
Mode of preparation, like cobalt. 

Properties. — White, bard, magnetic, malleable, and ductile. 
— Specific gravity, 8*8. 

It forms two compounds with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — NiO. — Obtained by beating tbe nitrate ; — or, 
as a hydrate, by precipitation. — Color. — The basis of the 
salts. 

Sesquioxide. — Ni 2 3 . — Mode of preparation. 

Properties. — Black color; — insoluble.— Does not form salts. 

SALTS OF NICKEL. 

Sulphate. — NiO,S0 3 +7HO. — Isomorphous with sulphate 
of magnesia. — Preparation. 
Properties. — Color of crystals. 

Carbonate. — NiO,C0 2 +NiO,HO. — Obtained by precipita- 
tion. — Properties. 

Chloride. — MCI. — Prepared as the chloride of cobalt. — 
Color. 

German Silver. — Composition. 

Tests: — (1.) Green color of the salts. — (2.) Solution of 
potassa. — (3.) Ammonia. — (4.) Sulphide of ammonium. 



104 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



URANIUM. 

Symbol, U. — Equivalent, 60. 
Exists in pitchblende and uranite. 
Properties. — Specific gravity, 9. 
Forms three oxides. 

Protoxide. — UO. 

Black Oxide.— 2UO+U 2 3 . 

Sesquioxide. — U 2 3 . — The most important. — A yellow 
powder, used in enamel painting, and for glass-staining. — 
Forms salts. 



TIN. 105 



OBDER n. 



METALS, WHOSE OXIDES ARE WEAK BASES, OR ACIDS. 



TIN. 



Symbol, Sn (Stanrmm). — Equivalent, 58-9. 

Known to the ancients. — Most important localities. — Is 
found associated with oxygen, sulphur, and other bodies. 

Composition of mine tin and stream tin. 

Mode of reduction. — Grain and block tin. 

Properties. — Color. — Softness. — Malleability. — Ductility. 
— Sound when bent. — Specific gravity, 7 '2. — Fusing-point, 
442°. — Burns when heated to whiteness. 

Crystals procured. 

Action of strong acids. — Action of weak nitric acid. 

Uses of tin for coating other metals. 

Process for tinning sheet-iron. 

Mode of tinning pins. — Pewter. 

Tin forms three compounds with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — SnO. — Process of obtaining it from the chlo- 
ride. — Properties. — Action of heat. 

Sesquioxide. — Sn 2 3 . — Obtained by the action of the chlo- 
ride on the sesquioxide of iron. — Color, grayish. 



106 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Binoxide. — Stannic Acid. — Sn0 2 . 

Exists under two isomeric conditions : — (1.) The hydrated 
binoxide, — from the action of nitric acid on the metal. — 
(2.) By precipitation from the bichloride, as a white bulky 
hydrate. 

Properties. — Jewellers^ putty. 

Protochloride. — SnCl. — Prepared as a hydrate. — Obtained 
in the anhydrous form. — Effect of much water. 

Properties. — A powerful deoxidizer. — Effect on the persalts 
of metals. — Tendency to form double chlorides. 

Bichloride — Perchloride — Filming Liquor of Libavius. 
— SnCl 2 . 

Prepared by heating metallic tin in chlorine ; or by distilla- 
tion of tin and corrosive sublimate together. 

Properties. — Use in dyeing. 

Protosulphide. — SnS. — Obtained by fusing tin and sulphur 
together. 

Bisulphide. — SnS 2 . — Obtained from the persalts bysulphy- 
dric acid. — Mode of preparing Mosaic gold.- — Eationale. 
The sulphides of tin act as sulphur-acids. 

Tests : (1) The protosalts form the purple of Cassius with 
the chloride of gold. — (2) They deoxidize. — (3) They yield a 
black precipitate with sulphydric acid. — (4) The persalts give 
a yellow precipitate with sulphydric acid and sulphide of am- 
monia, soluble in an excess of the latter. 



CHROMIUM. 
Symbol, Cr. — Equivalent, 28. 



CHROMIUM. 107 

Found in nature chiefly in combination with iron (chrome 
iron), and lead. — Localities. 

Mode of separation. 

Properties. — Grayish-white, — resembles steel. — Sp. grav. 
5*9. — Difficulty of fusion. — Brittle. — Isomorphous with man- 
ganese and iron. 

It forms three compounds with oxygen. 

Protoxide. — CrO. — Obtained as a hydrate. — It resembles 
the protoxide of iron in its tendency to absorb oxygen. — 
Color. 

JSesquioxide. — Cr 2 3 . — Isomorphous with Fe 2 3 . 

Procured from chromate of mercury by heat ; also by de- 
oxidizing the chromic acid of the bichromate of potash. 

Properties. — A feeble base. — Green color. — Forms an alum 
with sulphate of potash— Cr 2 3? 3S0 3 +KO ; S0 3 +24HO.~ 
Its solution yields the sesquioxide, by precipitation. 

Chromic Acid. — Cr0 3 . — Obtained nearly pure by the action 
of sulphuric acid on the bichromate of potash. — Properties. 
— Strong oxidizing property. — Effect on alcohol. 

Chromate of Potash. — KO ; Cr0 3 . — Mode of obtaining from 
native chrome iron. 
Properties. — Uses. 

Bichromate of Potash (Red Chromate). — KO ; 2Cr0 3 . — 
Obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on the chromate. 
Properties. — Uses in dyeing. 

Chromate of Lead. — PbO,Cr0 3 . — (Chrome yellow.) 
Preparation. — Properties. — Use. 

Protochloride. — CrCl. — Mode of preparing. 
Properties. — A powerful deoxidizer. 

Sesquichloride. — Cr 2 Cl 3 . — Preparation. 



108 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Tests : The different colors given to metallic solutions, as 
of lead, silver , mercury, zine, and baryta. 

Other metals belonging to this Order are : 

Vanadium, Tungsten or Wolfram, Molybdenum, Co- 

LUMBIUM or TANTALUM, TELLURIUM, TlTANIUM, NlOBIUM, 

and Pelopium. 



ANTIMONY. 109 



ORDER III. 



METALS 1SOMORPHOUS WITH PHOSPHORUS. 



ANTIMONY. 

Symbol, Sb (Stibium). —Equivalent, 129. 

The ter sulphide , called crude antimony, the most common 
ore. — Localities.— Mode of reduction. — Regulus of Anti- 
mony. 

Properties. — A white crystalline metal. — Sp. grav. 68. — 
Brittle. — Melts at 842°. — Takes fire at a white heat, giving 
off vapors of the oxide. — Argentine flowers of. Antimony. 

Action of hot chlorohydric and nitric acids. 

Use of antimony in the arts. — Composition and characters 
of type-metal. 

Antimony forms four compounds with oxygen. 

Teroxide. — Sb0 3 . — Formed by burning antimony in the 
air. — As an oxychloride, by throwing the terchloride into 
water. 

Properties. — The basis of tartar emetic. 

Antimonious Acid. — Sb0 4 . — Preparation. 
Properties. — Acid reaction. 

Antimonic Acid. — SbO s . — Modes of forming it. 
Properties.-— Antimoniate of Potasli. 

10 



110 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SALTS OF ANTIMONY. 



Ter chloride. — SbCl 3 . — Modes of preparation. 

Properties. — Naine, butter of antimony. 

Effect of water. 

Pentachloride. — SbCl 5 . — Corresponding to Sb0 5 . — Prepara- 
tion. — Properties. 

A chloride — SbCl 4 — corresponding to Sb0 4 , is said to exist. 

Tersidphide. — SbS 3 . — The crude antimony of commerce. — 
A native product. 

Artificial formation. — Properties. 

Effect of roasting the tersulphide. — Glass, crocus, and liver 
of antimony. 

Effect of an alkali on an antimonial solution, through which 
sulphydrie acid is passed. 

Preparation and composition of Kermes y mineral, precipi- 
tated sulphur et, and golden sulphur of antimony. — Rationale. 

Sidphantimonious Acid. — SbS 4 . — Preparation. 

Sulphantimonic Acid — Pentasulphide — SbS 5 . —Prepara- 
tion . — Properties. 

Tartar Emetic (tartrate of antimony and potash). — KO, 
SbO 3; C 8 H 4 O 10 + 2HO.— A bibasic salt. 

Mode of preparation. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Incompatibles. 

Effects as a poison. — Treatment. — Antidote. 

Tests : (1) Sulphydrie acid through an acid solution : from 
this procure the metal. — (2) Action of water on the ter- 
chloride. 



ARSENIC. Ill 



ARSENIC. 

Symbol, As. — Equivalent, 75. 

Occasionally found native, but more usually in combination 
with other metals. 

Mode of reduction— first, to sublime it as arsenious acid, 
and then to decompose this by heat and charcoal. 

Properties. — Of an iron-gray color. — Brittle.— Sp. grav. 5-8. 
— Sublimes before fusing. — Odor of the vapor. — Condenses in 
close vessels in crystals. — Effect of the presence of air. — Mode 
of exhibiting the vapor. 

Arsenic combines with metals like phosphorus. 

It forms two compounds with oxygen ; both of them acid. 

Teroxide. — Arsenious Acid. — As0 3 (white oxide). — Ob- 
tained in roasting the native ore. s 

Two varieties — the vitreous and opaque. 

Points of difference between them. 

Taste. — Solubility. — Crystalline form.— Sp. grav. 3*7. — 
Sublimes at 380°. — Density of vapor. — Solubility in acid and 
alkaline solutions. 

Forms arsenates. — lsomorphous with phosphorous acid. 

Taste. — Poisonous effects. — Treatment. — Antidotes. 

Arsenic Acid. — As0 5 . — lsomorphous with phosphoric acid. 
Formed by action of nitric acid on As0 3 . 
Properties. — Solubility. — Color. — Deliquescence. — Forms 
arsenates (tribasic). 

Suboxide (Fly stone). — The dark-colored film which collects 
on the metal, on exposure. 



112 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Terchloride. — AsCl 3 . — Three methods of preparing it. 
A volatile colorless liquid, decomposed by water into chlo- 
rohydric acid and arsenious acid. 

Teriodide. — Asl 3 . — Preparation. 

Terhromide. — AsBr 3 . 

Bisidphide. — AsS 2 . — Native Realgar. — Artificially made. 
— Properties . — Use . 

Tersidphide. — AsS 3 . — Native orpiment. — Artificial forma- 
tion. — Properties. — Color. — Solubility in an alkaline solution. 
— Use as a test. 

Both of these sulphides are sulphur-acids. 

Pentasulphide. — AsS 5 . — (Sulpharsenic acid.) — Mode of 
preparation. — Properties. 

Arseniuretted Hydrogen. — AsH 3 . — How formed. 

Properties. — Colorless. — Alliaceous odor. — Specific gravity^ 
2-6. — Deleterious nature. — Color of its tiame. — Products of 
combustion. — Modes of decomposing. 

Tests. 

I. The solid tests. — Mode of distinguishing arsenious acid 

from other white powder : (a) By heating in a test-tube, 
and noticing the crystalline sublimate, (b) Its sparing 
solubility in water, (c) The action of solution of potash, 
(d) The odor of the vapor when thrown on red-hot char- 
coal, (e) Obtaining the metallic ring by reduction. 

II. The Liquid Tests : (a) Ammonio-sulphate of copper. — 

Mode of making it. (b) Ammonio-nitrate of silver. — 
Mode of making it. (c) Sulphydric acid, through an 
acid solution; — and reduce the sulphide in the form of 
the metallic ring. 



ARSENIC. 113 

III. The Gaseous Test. — -Marsh's apparatus. — The tache — 
how distinguished from that produced by antimony. 

Flandin's modification of Marsh's apparatus.— Precautions 
to be observed. 

IV. Keinsch's process, — by precipitation of the metal on 
copper. — Precautions. 

Modes of proceeding in case of suspected poisoning. 
Method of ascertaining the existence of the poison in the 

solids of the body. 
Antidotes. 



10* 



114 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



OKDER IV. 



METALS WHOSE OXIDES ARE REDUCED BY HEAT ALONE. 



MERCURY. 

Symbol, Hg (Hydrargyrum). — Equivalent, 100 or 200. — 
Reason for assuming the former number. 

Occasionally found in nature in the form of metallic glo- 
bules. — Most common ore is the sulphide (cinnabar). — Locali- 
ties. 

Mode of reduction. 

Properties. — Fluidity. — Color. — Specific gravity, 13*5. — 
Solidifies at the temperature of — 39° Faht. — Properties of 
the solid. — Boils at 662°. — Gives off vapor at common tem- 
peratures. 

Impurities of commercial mercury. — Modes of purification. 
— Test of its purity. 

Effect of exposure to the air. — Effect of boiling it in the 
air. 

Action of the strong acids. 

The alloys of mercury named amalgams. 

The amalgam of tin employed for coating looking-glasses. — 
Method adopted. 



MERCURY. 115 

It forms two compounds with oxygen. 
Reasons for the nomenclature here adopted. 

Black Oxide. — Suboxide. — Hg a O. — Obtained by the action 
of potassa on the subnitrate. — Rationale. — Black wash. 
Properties. — Effect of exposure to light. 
Chemical nature of blue mass and mercurial ointment. 
Microscopic appearance. 

Red Oxide. — Protoxide. — HgO (red precipitate.) — The 
most powerful base. 

Modes of preparation : — 1. By heating the metal, in con- 
tact with the air. 2. By heating the nitrate. 3. By preci- 
pitation. 

Differences in the resulting compounds. 

Properties. — Color. — Solubility. — Action of heat. 

Poisonous properties. — Yellow wash. 

Use in medicine. 

SALTS OF MERCURY. 

Each oxide forms both a neutral and a basic salt. 

Nitrate of the Black Oxide.— Hg a O ; N0 5 +2HO.— Made 
by an excess of cold dilute nitric acid on mercury. — Occurs 
in large colorless crystals; — decomposed by a large quantity of 
water. 

Basic Nitrate of the Black Oxide.— 3Hg 2 ? 2N0 5 +3H0. 
— Made by cold dilute nitric acid on an excess of mercury. — 
Appearance. 

Mode of distinguishing these two nitrates. 

Nitrate of the Red Oxide. — HgO ; N0 5 . 

Made by boiling nitric acid in excess on mercury. — The 
neutral condition preserved only while in solution. — Change 
on drying. 



116 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Medical use. 

Basic Nitrate of the Red Oxide.— 3HgG 3 NO s +HO. 

Action of water on the former oxide. 

Sulphate of the Black Oxide. — Hg 2 0,S0 3 . 
Modes of preparing. — Properties. 

Sulphate of the Red Oxide. — HgO,S0 3 . — Obtained by 
boiling mercury and sulphuric acid together. — Rationale. 

Effect of water. — Basic sulphate (turpeth mineral) — 
3HgO,S0 3 . — Use in medicine. 

The Carbonates — how made. 

Subchloride — Calomel — Hg 2 Cl. 

Modes of preparation : — 1. By the action of chlorine on 
mercury. 2. By solution of chloride of sodium on the sub- 
nitrate. 3. By subliming together common salt, the sulphate 
of the red oxide, and metallic mercury. 4. By subliming 
together common salt and corrosive sublimate. 

Rationale in the above cases. 

Properties. — Crystals (found native).- — Color. — Solubility. 
— Specific gravity, 6 '5. — Effect of exposure to light. — Effect 
of alkalies. 

Test of its purity. — Use in medicine. — Howard's Calomel. 

Protochloride — Corrosive Sublimate — HgCl. 

Prepared by subliming together common salt, and the sul- 
phate of the red oxide.— Rationale. 

Properties. — Colorless crystals. — Solubility in water, alco- 
hol, and ether. — Specific gravity, 6*5. 

Use in medicine. — Incompatibles. 

Poisonous effects. — Antidote. 

Use in the arts, and in the laboratory. 

Tendency to form double salts. — Sal alembroth. 

White Precipitate. — ( Ammoniated mercury.) — HgCl + 



MERCURY. 117 

IIgNH 2 . — An amo-chloride of mercury. — Mode of prepara- 
tion. — Rationale. — Properties.— Use. 

Subiodide — Hg 3 T. — Modes of preparation. — Color. — Use 
in medicine. 

Protiodide — Red iodide — Hgl . 

Modes of obtaining. — Color. 

Change of its molecular condition by beat. 

Use in medicine. 

The two bromides are analogous to the iodides. 

Cyanide. — HgCy. — The only one. — Reason for not con- 
sidering it a bicyanide. 

Obtained by the action of cyanhydric acid on the red oxide. 

Usually manufactured by boiling together the red oxide and 
Prussian blue. — Rationale. 

Use in the laboratory. 

Black Sulphide — Subsulphide — Hg 2 S. — Obtained by the 
action of sulphydric acid on a subsalt. — Properties. 

Red Sulphide — Protosulphide — HgS. — (Native Cinna- 
bar.) — Artificially made by fusing mercury and sulphur 
together. 

Properties. — Vermilion. 

Ethiops Mineral. — Made by triturating mercury and sul- 
phur together. — Composition. 

Tests: 1. Action of the alkalies on the subsalts. — 2. Their 
action on the protosalts. — 3. Action of protochloride of tin on 
a subsalt. — 4. Action of iodide of potassium on both classes 
of salts. — 5. Action of sulphydric acid on both. — 6. Precipi- 
tation of metallic mercury on gold and copper. 



118 INORGANIC CHKMISTRY. 



SILVER. 



Symbol, Ag (Argentum). — Equivalent, 108. 

Occasionally found native, in grains or threads. — More fre- 
quently as a sulphide, or chloride. — Antiquity. — Localities. 

Two methods of reduction, — amalgamation and cupella- 
tion. 

Processes described. 

Mode of obtaining it chemically pure, from silver coin. 

Properties. — Color. — The best conductor of heat and elec- 
tricity. — Very malleable and ductile. — Sp. grav. 10-5. — Not 
acted on by the air or moisture. — Its tarnishing owing to the 
presence of suiphydric acid. 

Effect of exposure to oxygen, when melted. 

Effect of alloying it with copper. 

Action of acids. — Proper solvent. 

It forms three oxides. 

Suboxide. — Ag 2 0. — Made by heating the citrate with hy- 
drogen gas, and precipitating by potash. — Properties. 

Protoxide. — AgO. — Obtained by action of potash on the 
nitrate. 

Properties. — Black color. — Nearly insoluble in water. — 
— Soluble in ammonia. — The basis of all the salts. 

Peroxide. — Ag0 2 . — Obtained by galvanic agency on a weak 
solution of the nitrate. — Properties. 

SALTS OF SILVER. 

Nitrate. — AgO,N0 5 . — Mode of preparation. 

Properties. — Shape and color of crystals. — Solubility. — 



SILVER. 119 

Effect of the presence of organic matter, when exposed to 

light. 

Lunar Caustic. — Preparation. — Impurities. 
Uses in the arts, and in medicine. 
Mode of removing its dark stains. 

Sulphate. — AgO,S0 3 . — Made by boiling silver in sulphuric 
acid ; or by the action of an alkaline sulphate on the nitrate. 

Properties. — Difficult solubility in water. — Soluble in am- 
monia, forming a double salt. 

Carbonate. — AgO,C0 2 . — Formed by double decomposition 
of the nitrate and carbonate of potash or soda. 

Properties. — A white powder, becoming black on exposure. 

Hyposulphite and Hypo sulphate. 

Chloride. — AgCl. — (Horn Silver.) 

Occurs native. — Made by decomposing the nitrate by a 
soluble chloride. 

Properties. — A white bulky substance, insoluble in nitric 
acid, but soluble in ammonia. 

The Iodide — Agl, Bromide — AgBr, and Cyanide— AgCy, 
may be obtained, as the chloride, by double decomposition. 

Sulphide — AgS. — Occurs native. 

Made by the action of sulphydric acid on a soluble salt of 
silver. — Properties .- 

Ammoniuret. — Obtained by dissolving the freshly precipi- 
tated oxide in ammonia. 

Properties. — Violently explosive. — Rationale. 

Modes of precipitating metallic silver from its solution. — 
Arbor Dianm. 

Test : Chlorohydric acid, or a soluble chloride. 

Alloys of Silver.— Composition of silver coin, 



120 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



GOLD. 

Symbol, Au (Aurum). — Equivalent, 99*5. 

Found mostly in the metallic state, either pure, or alloyed 
with silver; and frequently in grains, or diffused through 
quartz. — Localities. 

How separated. 

Mode of separating from silver, by the process of quartet- 
tion. 

Mode of obtaining chemically pure. 

Properties. — Color. — Malleability and ductility. — Conduct- 
ing power. — Sp. grav. 19*5. — Not affected by air, moisture, 
or any pure acid. — Proper solvent. 

It forms two compounds with oxygen. 

Suboxide. — Au 2 0. — Made by the action of potassa on the 
subchloride. 

Properties. — Not basic; — A green powder; soon decompo- 
sing into metallic gold and the sesquioxide. 

Sesquioxide. — Auric Acid. — Au 2 3 . 

Mode of preparation. 

Properties. — A reddish powder. — Acts as an acid. — Deoxi- 
dized by organic bodies, setting free metallic gold. — Digested 
with ammonia, it forms fulminating gold. 

Subchloride. — Au 2 Cl. — Obtained by heating the sesquichlo- 
ride. — Properties. 

Sesquichloride. — Au 2 Cl 3 . — The most important of all the 
salts. 

Obtained by dissolving gold in aqua regia. — It forms double 
chlorides. 

The solution used for gilding. 



PLATINUM. 121 

Etherial solution of gold. 

Test : The formation of the Purple of Cassius.- — Its com- 
position. 

Alloys of Gold. — Composition of gold coins. 
Processes of gilding. — Assay of gold by the touchstone. 



PLATINUM. 

Symbol, Pt.— Equivalent, 98-7. 

Occurs in the metallic condition, in combination with palla- 
dium, rhodium, osmium, iridium, and ruthenium. — Localities. 

Mode of extraction. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Color. — Hardness. — Malleability and ductility. 
— Sp. grav. 21-5. — Not affected by exposure to the air or 
moisture, or any simple acid. — Proper solvent. — Mode of fu- 
sion. — Welding. 

Careful use of platinum crucibles. 

Spongy platinum, and platinum olach. — Preparation. — 
— Properties. 

It forms two oxides, and two chlorides. 

Protoxide, — PtO. — Made by the action of potassa on the 
chloride. — Rationale. — Properties. 

Binoxide. — Pt0 2 . — Obtained by the action of potassa on 
the bichloride, heating, and the addition of acetic acid. 
Properties.— Soluble in acids and alkalies. — Forms salts. 

Protochloride. — Obtained by heating the bichloride. 
Properties. — A greenish powder — insoluble in water. 

Bichloride. — PtCl 3 . — Obtained by dissolving the metal in 
aqua regia. 

11 



122 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Properties. — Color. — Solubility. It forms double chlorides. 
— Use in the laboratory. 

Test : The yellowish double chloride, formed with a salt of 
potash. 



PALLADIUM. 

Symbol, Pd. — Equivalent, 53. 

Obtained from the chloride by iodide of potassium, — and 
heating the resulting iodide. 

Properties. — Resemble those of platinum. — More readily 
fused. — Malleable. — Welding. — Sp. grav. 11*8. 

The compounds of Palladium resemble those of platinum. 



RHODIUM. 



Symbol, R. — Equivalent, 52. 
Obtained from the chloride, as palladium. 
Properties. — Color. — Infusibility. — Sp. grav. 11. 
Is not acted upon by any acids, nor by aqua regia, if in the 
pure state. 



IRIDIUM. 



Symbol, Ir. — Equivalent, 98-6. 
Mode of extraction. 



RUTHENIUM, 123 

Properties. — Hardness. — Infusibility. — Sp. grav. 21*8 (the 
heaviest body known). 
Use in the arts. 



OSMIUM. 



Symbol, Os.— Equivalent, 99*5. 
Mode of extraction. — Properties. 
It forms four compounds with oxygen. 
Osmic Acid. — Os(X. 



RUTHENIUM. 



The last discovered of the associates of platinum.— Mode of 
extraction. 

Properties. — Gray color:— Infusibility. — Sp. grav. 8*6. — 
Not easily acted on by aqua regia.— Forms compounds. 



PART III. 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



Definition. — Distinction between an organic and an or- 
ganized body. — Organic bodies the products of organized 
bodies. — Examples. 

Primary and secondary organic bodies. 

Impossibility of making artificially any primary organic 
body. — Transformation into each other. 

The living vegetable-cell, the true parent of organic mat- 
ter. — Illustrations. 

Chemical composition of Organic Bodies. — Their four es- 
sential elements, — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 

Their accidental elements, — sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, 
fluorine, silicon, potassium, sodium, magnesium, calciuin, iron, 
and manganese. — (Only fifteen in all.) 

Necessity of these accidental elements. — Illustrations. 

A chief difference between inorganic and organic bodies is 
the manner in which their elements are grouped together. 

Binary combination in inorganic bodies. 

More complex method in organic bodies. 

Doctrine of Compound Radicals. — Examples. 

Behavior of these Compound Radicals : 

Some are electro-positive, and some electro-negative. 



ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 125 

Liebig's definition of " Organic Chemistry." 

Many of the Compound Radicals have been isolated. 

Some act as the combustibles — sulphur, carbon, and phos- 
phorus. — Examples. 

Some act as the metals. — Examples. 

Some partake of the nature of both. — Examples. 

Highly probable that all organic compounds consist of one 
or more compound radicals. 

The chief points of distinction between organic and inor- 
ganic bodies are : 

1st. Their origin, — the former being always produced by a 
living organism, either directly or indirectly. 

2d. The preponderance of carbon in organic bodies, united 
with oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. 

Results of heating organic bodies in open vessels. 
Results of heating them in close vessels. 
Heat is, consequently, a test for organic bodies. 
Definition of " Organic Bodies," founded upon the above 
results. — (Turner. ) 

Proneness to spontaneous decomposition of organic sub- 
stances, dependent on their complex composition. 

Animal bodies more readily decomposed than vegetables. 

The least tendency to decompose is found in those bodies 
whose elements are in the proportion to saturate each other. — 
Illustrations. 

Products of the decomposition. 

Controlling influence of the vital force in living animals and 
vegetables. 

Isomerism very frequent among organic bodies. — Explana- 
tion.— Examples. 

11* 



126 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC BODIES. 

Various methods employed. — Liebig's considered the best. 

Principles involved in determining the ultimate composition 
of a ternary organic body : " to ascertain the amount of hy- 
drogen and carbon, by converting them, respectively, into 
water and carbonic acid ; and the amount of oxygen by sub- 
tracting." 

The oxygen obtained from the black oxide of copper. — 
Mode of preparation. — Accuracy in drying. — Quantity of the 
substance proper to be analyzed. — Mode of weighing. — The 
combustion-tube. — Method of filling it. — Mode of heating. — 
Chloride of calcium tube. — Liebig's potash bulbs. — Method 
of proceeding. 

Mode of calculating the results. 

Mode of determining the nitrogen and sulphur, in more 
complex organic bodies. 



PROXIMATE ORGANIC PRINCIPLES. 127 



PROXIMATE ORGANIC PRINCIPLES. 



Definition of the term Proximate Principles, — Sometimes 
named immediate principles. — Their composition always com- 
plex. — Distinguished from ultimate principles. — Examples 
from the vegetable and animal kingdom. 

The proximate principles are separated by proximate 
analysis. 

Proximate analysis effected by different methods : 

1. By solution. — The solvents employed. 

2. By washing out mechanically. — Example. 

3. By moderate heat. — Examples. 

4. By compression. — Examples. 

5. By chemical reagents, acting by virtue of their affinities. 
— Examples. 

Importance of the proximate principles.- — Their chemical 
composition very similar. — Isomerism very frequent. — Effect 
of a high heat. 



128 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION I. 

Substances composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and 
Oxygen; — the two latter being in the proportion 
to FORM WATER — (Hydrates of Carboii). 



GUM. 

Technical definition of Gum.'*- Guerin's classification of 
gums. 

Characters of Arabin. — Composition, C^H^O^ ;— isomeric 
with cane-sugar. 

Strict definition of mucilage.— Chemical difference between 
mucilage, and a solution of gum. 

Action of dilute sulphuric and nitric acids. 

Characteristics of Bassorln.— Found in what gums. — Iso- 
meric with arabin. 

Characters of Cerasin. — Found in what varieties of gum. — 
Action of boiling water. — Isomeric with arabin. 



STARCH, OR FECULA. 

Composition, C 13 H 10 10 . — Wide diffusion throughout the 
vegetable kingdom. — Parts of plants yielding it. — Mode of 
separating it. 



SUGAR. 129 

Appearance to the naked eye. — Physical conformation. — 
Appearance under the microscope. — Unequal size of the gra- 
nules. 

Action of water, alcohol, and ether. — Action of boiling 
water. — Effects of dry heat. — Appearance when dried, after 
being dissolved. — Action of iodine, and of other reagents. — 
Effect of strong acids. — Action of dilute acids and heat. — 
Action of malt. 

Natural conversion of starch into sugar. 

Varieties of starch. — Uses in medicine, and the arts. 

Dextrin. — Name. — Mode of procuring it from starch. — Use 
in the arts. — Composition, C 12 H J0 O 10 . 

Properties. — Natural production in germinating grains 
under the influence of diastase, — Easy conversion into grape 

sugar. 

Pectin. — Found in vegetable jellies. 

Mode of extraction. — Action of chemical reagents. 



SUGAR. 



The term generically applied. — True and false sugar. 
Four varieties of true sugar : — Cane Sugar, Grape Sugar, 
Sugar of Milk, and Uncrystallizable Sugar, or Molasses. 



I. CANE SUGAR. 



Composition, C^H^O^. — Sources. 

Mode of extracting from the sugar-cane. — Mode of refining. 
Properties. — Appearance. — Solubility. — Taste. — Crystals 
procured. — Caramel. — Syrup. 



130 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Action of subacetate of lead. — Action of strong and dilute 
sulphuric acid. — Action of strong and dilute nitric acid. — 
Action of alkalies and alkaline earths. 

Influence of cane sugar on polarized light. 

II. GRAPE SUGAR — GLUCOSE. 

Composition, C 12 H 14 14 . 

Occurs in numerous fruits, — in candied preserves, — in honey, 
— and in diabetic urine. 

Artificial formation from most of the amylaceous bodies. 

Points of difference between grape and cane sugar. — Action 
on polarized light. 

Action of acids and alkalies. 

Trommer's test. — Rationale. 

Physiological importance of glucose. 

III. SUGAR OF MILK — LACTIN. 

Composition, C^H^O^. — Name. 

Obtained by evaporating whey. — Appearance. 

Properties. — Action of acids. 

The False Sugars.— -Their properties. 



CELLULOSE AND LIGNIN. 



Distinction between these two principles. — Composition, 
P IT O 



CELLULOSE AND LIGNIN. 131 

Examples of true lignin. — Action of strong sulphuric acid 
is to convert them into grape sugar. — Action of nitric acid. 

Pyroxylin or Pyroxyl — (Gun Cottoii). — Composition, 
C 24 H 17 17 ,5N0 5 . 

Mode of making. — Properties of gun cotton. 

Collodion. — Preparation. — Uses. 

Xyloidin. — C 6 H 4 4 ,N0 5 . — Analogous to pyroxylin. — Made 
by the action of nitric acid on paper. 



132 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION II. 



Principles resulting from the action of Nitric 
Acid on some of the foregoing substances. 



MUCIC ACID. 

Composition; C 6 H 4 7? HO. 

Made by the action of nitric acid on gum, or sugar of milk. 
— Preparation. — Properties. 



OXALIC ACID. 



Composition, C 2 3 ,HO+2HO, or CO+C0 2 ,HO+2HO. 

Made by the action of strong nitric acid on any of the amy- 
laceous bodies, except gum and lactin. 

Usual mode of preparation. — Rationale. 

Properties. — Crystals. — Taste. — Solubility. — Poisonous x ef- 
fects. — Antidotes. 

Use in the laboratory. 



OXALIC ACID. 133 



SALTS OF OXALIC ACID. 



The Oxalate and Binoxalate of Potassa. 

Oxalate of Ammonia. — Oxalate of Lime. — Properties. 

Oxamide. — C 2 2 +NH 2 , or C 2 H 2 N0 2 . — Preparation. 

Suberic Acid. — C s H 6 3 + HO. — Obtained by the action of 
nitric acid on cork. 



12 



134 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION III. 



Fermentation. 



The term Fermentation used formerly in a restricted sense. 
— Now more extended. — Distinguished from catalysis. 
& ferment defined. — Composition. 

Circumstances influencing fermentation : 

1. Temperature. — It cannot occur below 40°. — The result of 

the fermentation dependent on the degree of heat. — 
Illustrations. 

2. The degree of decomposition of the ferment.— Illustrations. 

Small quantity of ferment requisite to affect a large amount 
of material. — Example. 

During fermentation, the ferment itself is destroyed, unless 
there be present some albuminous substance, out of which 
fresh ferment is generated. — Example in the case of yeast. 

Application to the pathology of the different viruses. 

Speculations as to the modus operandi of ferments. — Micro- 
scopic appearance of yeast. 

The results of fermentation are widely different, being depen- 
dent upon the temperature, but chiefly on the degree of decom- 
position of the ferment. — Examples. 

Antiseptics. 



ALCOHOL. 135 

Six species of Fermentation : 

I. Organic Fermentation. — The lowest form. — Circum- 
stances favorable to it. — Mould and mildew. — The product 
is cellulose. 

II. Germinative Fermentation. — Circumstances requisite. 
— The most favorable temperature. — Results. 

III. Vinous Fermentation. — -Circumstances necessary. — 
Proper temperature. 

Natural occurrence in the juices of fruits when exposed to 
the air. 

Phenomena attending its occurrence in grape-juice. — Depo- 
sit of argol. 

Examples of fermented liquors. 

Chemical changes occurring in Vinous Fermentation. 

Effect of distilling the fermented liquors. 



ALCOHOL. 

Composition— C 4 H 6 2 , or C 4 H 5 ; H0. — Always produced 
as the result of the vinous fermentation. — -Small quantity at 
first produced. — The liquors concentrated by distillation. 

Process of distillation. 

Ardent spirits, or distilled liquors — The result of the first 
distillation. — Examples. 

Spirits of ivine, or officinal alcohol — The result of a 
second distillation. 

Quantity of real alcohol contained in distilled liquors. — 
Quantity in spirits of wine. 

Properties of common alcohol (spirits of wine). — Limpid ; 
— Colorless; — Peculiar odor; — Inflammable. — Color of flame. 



136 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

— Results of combustion. — Solvent properties. — Sp. grav. -835. 
— Contains 15 per cent, of water. 

Absolute Alcohol. — Obtained from the common, by distilling 
with quick-lime, and by other processes. 

Properties. — Sp. grav. *793. — Boils at 177°. — Blue color 
of flame. — Has never been frozen. — Is miscible with water in 
all proportions. 

Extensive use in the laboratory, and in the arts. 

Alcoates. 

IV. Lactic Acid Fermentation. — When produced. — Ex- 
amples. — Chemical change involved. 

Lactic Acid. — Best mode of preparation. 
Properties. — A colorless syrupy liquid. — Sp. grav. 1*215. — 
Very acid. — Soluble in water. 

Cause of thickening of milk. — Effect of rennet. 
Physiological importance of lactic acid. 
The most important lactates. 

V. Butyric Acid Fermentation. — Discovered by Pelouze. 
It succeeds the lactic acid fermentation. 

Mode of producing it. — Rationale. 

Properties of Butyric Acid. — An oily liquid, of an un- 
pleasant odor. — Sp. grav. -963. — Soluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether. — Forms salts. 

It is also a product of the decomposition of fibrin. 

Butter is a butyrate of the oxide of lipyle. 

VI. Viscous Fermentation. — Circumstances favorable to its 
production. 

Chemical changes involved. — Nature of the results. 



THE ETHYLE COMPOUNDS. 18^ 



SECTION IV. 

Products of the action of Acids on Alcohol — . 
Etherification. 

THE ETHYLE COMPOUNDS. 

Ethyle, C 4 H 5 , or Ae. 

Oxide (ether), C,H 5 0, or AeO. 

Hydrated oxide (alcohol), C 4 H 5 0,HO, or AeO,HO. 

Chloride (muriatic ether), C 4 H 5 C1, or AeCl. 

Bromide (hydrobromic ether), C 4 H 5 Br, or AeBr. 

Cyanide (hydrocyanic ether), C 4 H 5 Cy, or AeCy. 

Nitrate of oxide (nitric ether), C 4 H 5 0,N0 5 , or AeO,N0 5 . 

Hvponitrite of oxide (nitrous ether), C 4 H 5 0,N0 3 , or AeO, 
NO,.' 

Sulphate of oxide (sulphuric ether), C 4 H 5 0,S0 3 , or AeO,S0 3 . 

Bisulphate of oxide (sulphovinic acid), C 4 H 5 0,2S0 3 ,HO. 

Carbonate of oxide (carbonic ether), C 4 H 5 0,C0 3 , or AeO, 
Co 3 . 

Oxalate of oxide (oxalic ether), C 4 H 5 0,C a 3 , or AeO,C 2 3 . 

The radical Ethyle has lately been isolated. — Mode of sepa- 
rating it. 

Properties. — A colorless, inodorous gas, burning with a 

brilliant flame. — Condenses into a thin mobile liquid. — Sp. 

grav. 2-0. 

12* 



138 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



ETHER. 



Composition. — C 4 H s O. — Improperly named Sulphuric 
Ether. — Made by depriving alcohol of its one equivalent of 
water. 

Mode of preparation. — Rationale. — How purified. 

Properties. — A thin, mobile, colorless liquid. — Odor and 
taste.— Sp. grav. -720.— Boils at 96°.— Volatility.— Inflam- 
mability. — Products of combustion. — Cold produced by its 
evaporation. — Density of vapor, 2*586. — Attracts oxygen from 
the air, and is converted into acetic acid. — Solubility in water 
and alcohol. — Its solvent powers. 

Pure or washed ether prepared. 

Use as an anaesthetic. — Rationale. 

COMPOUND ETHERS. 

These ethers are true salts, — consisting either of an acid 
combined with the oxide of ethyle, or of a halogen body com- 
bined with the radical ethyle. 

General method of forming them. 

Chloride of Ethyle. — Chlorohydric or Muriatic Ether. — 
C 4 H 5 C1. 

Mode of preparation. — Properties. — Odor. — Volatility. — 
Sp. grav. -872.— Boils at 52°. 

The bromide and iodide are prepared in the same general 
way. 

Sp. grav. of the iodide, 1-9.— Boils at 160°. 

Nitrate. — Nitric Ether. — C 4 H 5 0,N0 5 .— Mode of prepara- 
tion. — Use of the urea. 



ETHERS. 139 

Properties. — Sp. grav. 1112. — Insoluble. 

Hyponitrite. — Nitrous or Hyponitrous Ether. — C 4 H 5 0, 

no 3 . 

Modes of obtaining it pure. — How, containing aldehyde. 
Composition of Sweet Spirit of Nitre. 

Sulphate. — Sulphuric Ether (true). — C 4 H 5 0,S0 3 . — Only 
lately isolated. — Mode of preparation. — Properties. 

Acid Sulphate. — Sulphovinic Acid. — C 4 H 5 0,2S0 3? HO. 
Mode of formation. — Hationale. — Properties. — Forms salts. 

Heavy Oil of Wine.— C 4 H 4 ,S0 3 +C 4 H 5 0,S0 3 . 
Mode of procuring. — Properties. 

Phosphovinic Acid. — C 4 H 5 0,2P0 5 . 

Similar in preparation and properties, to sulphovinic acid. 

Olefiant Gas. — C 2 H 2 . — Already treated of. 
Mode of making. — Action of chlorine. 

ACTION OF CHLORINE ON ALCOHOL AND ETHER. 

Chloral. — C 4 C1 3 0,H0. — Made by passing chlorine through 
alcohol. 

Analogous in composition to aldehyde. 

Principle of substitution. 

Properties. — A thin, oily, colorless liquid, of a penetrating 
odor. — Specific gravity, 1-5. — Solubility. 

Action of Chlorine on Ether. — Series of compounds formed 
on the principle of substitution. — Examples. 



140 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION V. 

Action or Oxygen on Alcohol. 

THE ACETYLE COMPOUNDS. 

Products of the combustion of alcohol and ether, in the air. 
— Possibility of so slowly oxidizing theni, as only to deprive 
them of a portion of their hydrogen. 

As a result, a series of compounds is formed, inferred to have 
one common base — Acetyle. 

The radical acetyle is formed from ethyle, by depriving the 
latter of two equivalents of oxygen. 

Point of difference between ethyle and acetyle. 

Eremacaasis defined and explained. 
Differs essentially from fermentation. 
Prerequisites. — Examples. 

Importance in the animal economy. — Physiological deduc- 
tions. 

Acetyle, Ac, or C 4 H 3 (unknown). 

Oxide, C 4 H 3 (unknown). 

Hydrated Oxide,— aldehyde.— C 4 H 3 0,H0. 

Acetylous Acid (aldehydic acid). — C 4 H 3 2 ,HO. 

Acetylic Acid (acetic acid).— C 4 H 3 3; 1I0. 



THE ACETYLE COMPOUNDS. 141 

Aldehyde.— C 4 H 3 0,m 

Name. — Principle involved in its formation. 

Modes of preparation. — Rationale of action of chromic acid 
on alcohol. 

Properties. — A limpid, colorless liquid, having an odor of 
apples. — Specific gravity, *790. — Boils at 72°. — Solubility. — ■ 
Action on the oxide of silver. — Action of the atmosphere. 

Aldeliydic Acid — (Jjampie Acid). — C 4 H 3 2 ,HO. 

Acetic Acid. — C 4 H 3 3 ,HO. 

Action of alcohol vapor on platinum. — Effect of exposing 
dilute alcohol to the air. 

True nature of the so-called acetous fermentation. 

Nature of Vinegar. — Sources of it.- — German manner of 
making it. 

Chemical change accompanying the conversion of alcohol 
into acetic acid. 

Pyroligneous Acid. — Name. — Preparation. — Obtained pure 
from dry acetate of soda. 

Properties. — Colorless. — Odor and taste. — Boiling-point, 
248° — freezes at 50°, 

Glacial Acetic Acid. — Preparation. — Strong affinity for 
water. — Properties. 

Use of acetic acid in the arts, and medicine. 

Forms salts, named acetates. 

The acetates most used in medicine. 

Acetal. — C 8 H g 3 . — Mode of obtaining. — Impurities. — Pro- 
perties. — Odor. 

CMoroacetic Acid. — C 4 C1 3 3 ,H0 . 
Mode of procuring. 

Acetone — Pyroacetic Spirit. — C 4 H 4 0. 
Procured by distilling acetate of lead. 
Properties. 



142 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION VI. 

The Kakodyle Compounds. 

Kakodyle. — C 4 H 6 As ; or Kd. 

Lately isolated.— Procured from tlie chloride. 

Properties. — A thin liquid, of an offensive odor. 

Oxide — Cadet's Fuming Liquid. — C 4 H 6 AsO. — Named 
also Alkarsin. 

Danger of inhaling it. — Properties. 

The other Kakodyle compounds are the Chloride, Iodide, 
Bromide, Cyanide, Sulphide, Kakodylic Acid, &c. 



THE METHYLE COMPOUNDS. 148 



SECTION VII. 

The Methyle Compounds. 

Methyle (not isolated). — C 2 H 3 , or Me. 
Oxide (wood ether).— C 2 H 3 Q, or MeO. 
Hydrated Oxide (wood alcohol).— C 2 H 3 0,HO, or MeO,HO. 
Chloride (wood muriatic ether). — C 2 H 3 C1, or MeCl. 
Sulphate (wood sulphuric ether). — C 2 H 3 0,S0 3 , or MeO,S0 3 , 
&c. &c. 

methylic alcohol. 

Wood Spirit — Wood Naphtha — Pyroxylic Spirit. — 
C 2 H 3 0,H0. 

A product of the destructive distillation of wood, along 
with pyroligneous acid. — Proportion. — Mode of purifying. 

Properties. — A true alcohol. — Nearly colorless. — Volatile. 
— Inflammable. — Peculiar odor. — Specific gravity, -798. — 
Boils at 152°. — Solubility.— Solvent powers. — Antiseptic. 

methylic ether. 

Wood Ether,— C 2 H 3 0. 

Mode of preparation, similar to that of common ether, only 
substituting methylic alcohol. 



144 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Properties. — A permanent gas, sparingly soluble in water, 
— more so in alcohol. — Inflammable. — Of an ethereal odor. 

Sulphate. — C 2 H 3 0,S0 3 .— Made by a large excess of sul- 
phuric acid on wood spirit. 

Properties. — A heavy oily liquid, of an alliaceous odor. — 
Neutral to test paper. — Insoluble in water. 

Acid Sulphate — Sulphomethylic Acid. — C 2 H 3 0,2S0 3 - T - 
HO. — Prepared as sulphovinic acid. 

The other compounds of Methyle are obtained in a manner 
analogous to the corresponding Ethyle compounds ; — and their 
properties closely correspond to those of the latter. 



OXIDATION OF METHYLIC ALCOHOL.— THE FORMYLE 
COMPOUNDS. 

Products of the combustion of wood spirit in the open air. 

The eremacausis, or slow oxidation of wood-spirit, effected 
like that of common alcohol; — the result is a new acid, named 
Formic Acid. 

The Formyle Compounds are as follows: 

Formyle (not isolable), C 2 H. 

Hydrated teroxide (formic acid), C 2 H0 3 ,HO. 

Terchloride (chloroform), C 2 HC1 3 . 

Teriodide (iodoform), C 2 HI 3 . 

Terbromide (bromoform), C 3 HBr s . 



THE FORMYLE COMPOUNDS. 145 

Formic Acid.— C 2 U.0 v K0.— Named from.— Mode of ob- 
taining from ants. 

Procured, as an aldehyde, by the action of sulphuric acid 
and bichromate of potash on wood spirit ; — also by dilute sul- 
phuric acid on sugar, or starch, and peroxide of manganese. 

Properties. — A clear, colorless, pungent liquid. — Powerfully 
acid. — Having the odor of ants. — Corrosive. — Forms /or- 
miates. 

Distinguished, how, from acetic acid. 

Chloroform. — C a HCl 3 . — Is formed by the action of chlorine 
on the chloride of methyle, in the sun's light; — two equiva- 
lents of hydrogen are substituted by two of chlorine. 

Mode of manufacture. — Purification. 

Properties. — A colorless limpid liquid, of a peculiar aro- 
matic odor; — pungent, sweetish taste. — Sp. grav. 1*49. — Not 
inflammable. — Insoluble in water.— Soluble in alcohol and 
ether. 

Use, in medicine, as an anaesthetic. — Differs from ether. 

Bromo/orm and Iodoform are compounds similar to chlo- 
roform ) and their mode of preparation analogous to that of 
the latter. 

Substitution — action of chlorine on the Methyle series, 
analogous to that upon the Ethyle series. — Examples. 

Other products arising /rom the destructive distillation of 
wood. — These are found in the wood-tar. — Difference between 
it and coal-tar. 

Creasote the most important product. — Its mode of separa- 
tion complex. 

Properties. — Colorless when pure. — Sp. grav. 1-03. — Odor 
and taste, pungent and peculiar. — Highly refractive. — Boils 

13 



146 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

at 397°. — Inflames with difficulty. — Slightly soluble in water, 
alcohol, and acetic acid. — A powerful antiseptic. — Strong 
affinity for albumen. — Uses. 

Influence of wood-smoke in preserving meats. 

Other principles found in wood-tar are paraffin, eupione, 
picamar, and hapnomor. 



THE AMYLE COMPOUNDS. 147 



SECTION VIII. 

The Amyle Compounds. 

Amyle (not isolable), C^H^, or Ayl. 

Oxide (amylic ether), C^H^O. 

Hydrated oxide (amylic alcohol), 0^11^0,110. 

Chloride, CJH^Cl. 

Iodide, C^H^L 

Acetate, C 10 H lt O,AcO. 

Amylic Alcohol. — C^H^OjHO. 

The fusel oil, found in the whiskey obtained from potatoes, 
is the impure amylic alcohol. — It is found also towards the 
close of the process for making common alcohol. 

Appearance of fusel oil. — Mode of purification. 

Properties. — A thin, colorless, mobile liquid, of a pungent 
odor and burning taste. — Sp. grav. *818. — Burns with diffi- 
culty. — -Boils at 262° F. — It has all the essential properties of 
a true alcohol. 

Amylic Ethe ?\— C^H^O. — Made in a manner analogous to 
the other two ethers. 

Properties. — A colorless liquid, of a pleasant odor ; boiling 
at 233° F. 

The acetate, chloride, iodide, &c, are formed like the cor- 
responding methyle compounds. 



148 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

The acid sulphate of amyle, or sulphamylic acid — C^H^O, 
2S0 3 ,HO — is very analogous to sulphovinic and sulphome- 
thylic acids. — Obtained in a similar manner. 

By eremacausisy or slow oxidation, amylic alcohol is con- 
verted into a new acid — the valerianic — in a manner precisely 
analogous to acetic and formic acids. This acid is the hydrated 
teroxide of a new radical, C 10 H g — named Valyle. 

Valerianic Acid. — C 10 H g O 3 ,2HO. — A natural product of 
the valerian root. — Best mode of forming it artificially. 
Properties. — Identity with the natural acid. — Uses. 

Valerianic Aldehyde.— C 10 H Q O, HO. — How made. — Pro- 
perties. — Uses. 



THE BENZOILE COMPOUNDS. 149 



SECTION IX. 

The Benzoile Compounds. 

The compound radical Benzoile — C 14 H 5 2 , or Bz — has never 
been isolated. 

Hydruret (Oil of Bitter Almonds). — C 14 H 5 3 -f-H, or Bzll. 
— Obtained by distillation from the bitter almond, peach ker- 
nels, &c. 

It does not pre-exist in these substances, in the free state. — 
Explanation of its mode of formation. — The amygdalic fer- 
mentation. — Nature of the ferment. 

Amygdaline. — C 40 H 27 O 22 N. — How obtained. — Properties. 

The oil of bitter almonds of commerce contains hydrocyanic 
acid. — Poisonous properties. 

Properties of the pure oil. 

Oxide of Benzoile (Benzoic Acid). — C 14 H 5 O a +0, or BzO. 
— Natural sources. 

Modes of preparation. — Properties. 

Benzoates. — Uses in medicine. 

Its conversion into hippuric acid, in passing through the 
animal system. 

13* 



150 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION X. 

The Cinnamyle Compounds. 

The compound radical, Cinnamyle — C 18 H 7 2 , or Ci, — has not 
yet been obtained in a separate state. 

Hydruret {Oil of Cinnamon). — C 18 H 7 2 +H, or CiH. — 
Natural source, from the cinnamon bark by distillation. — 
Properties. 

Oxide (Cinnamic Acid). — C ls H 7 2 + ; or CiO. 
Obtained by the oxidation of oil of cinnamon. 
An ingredient in the true balsams. 



THE SALICYLE COMPOUNDS. 151 



SECTION XL 

The Salicyle Compounds. 

The compound radical Salicyle— -C 14 H 5 4J or SI— has never 
been separated. 

Salicine. — C 21 H 14 11 . — A neutral proximate principle, 
found in the bark of the willow, poplar, and other trees. 
Properties. — Use in medicine. 

Hydruret of Salicyle.- — C u H 5 4 +H, or S1H. — (Artificial 
Oil of Meadow Sweet.') — Obtained by distillation of salicine 
with bichromate of potassa and sulphuric acid. — Properties. 

Analogy with the natural oil. 

Salicylic Acid — (Hydra ted Oxide of Salicyle). — S10,HO. 
— Preparation. — Properties. 

Salicylate of the Oxide of Methyle ( Oil of Gauliheria pro- 
cumbens).— MeO+S10,RO. 

Natural source. — Artificially made, by distilling salicine with 
methylic alcohol. — Properties. 



152 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION XII. 

Organic or Vegetable Acids. 

Their frequent occurrence in the vegetable kingdom. — Parts 
of plants in which they are most generally found. — Their 
origin is ascribed to the oxidizement of the amylaceous com- 
pounds ; and, as they are generally found associated with the 
volatile oils, both are believed to be formed simultaneously 
from the same source, — the one by receiving the oxygen, which 
is relinquished by the other. 

Many of them used in medicine. 

Two classes of vegetable acids : — the one, found ready formed 
in plants ; — the other, the result of the action of heat on the 
former. 



ACETIC ACID. 

Composition, C 4 H 3 3 ,HO. — Already noticed as the result 
of the oxidizement of alcohol. — Its frequent occurrence in 
vegetables, — usually in combination with potassa. When the 
plants are burned, the organic acid is converted into carbonic 
acid; and, accordingly, the carbonate of potassa is found in 
the ash. 

Its properties have already been noticed. 



TARTARIC ACID. 153 



CITRIC ACID. 

Composition.— C a2 H 5 11 ,3HO. — A tribasic acid. 

Exists naturally in the lenion, lime, sour orange, &c. — Ob- 
tained from lemon-juice, by adding chalk, which forms citrate 
of lime ; — then decompose by sulphuric acid, and crystallize 
the residue by evaporation. 

Properties. — Large size of the crystals. — Colorless. — Freely 
soluble in water. — Taste. 

Mode of distinguishing it from Tartaric Acid. 

Uses in medicine. — Citrates. 

Effect of heating citric acid is to convert it into three 
equivalents of aconitic acid — C 4 HQ 3 + HO, and two equiva- 
lents of water. 



TARTARIC ACID. 

Composition, CgH^O^+^HO. — Bibasic. 

Exists naturally in certain fruits, — as the grape, tamarind, 
gooseberry, &c. 

Obtained from the acid tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) 
by the action of chalk, which throws down the tartrate of 
lime ; — then decompose this by means of sulphuric acid, and 
crystallize by evaporation. 

Properties. — Large colorless crystals. — Soluble in water. — 
Very sour. — Tendency to form bibasic salts. 

Test. — Its action upon potassa. 

Acid Tartrate of Potassa (Cream of Tartar). — KO,IIO, 
C 8 H 4 O 10 . — A bibasic salt, improperly called Biiartrate. 

Obtained by purifying argol. — Nature, and mode of forma- 
tion of argol. 



154 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Properties. — Sour taste. — Sparing solubility in water. — 
Effect of a strong heat. 

Neutral Tartrate of Potassa — 2KO,C 8 H 4 O 10 . 

Obtained from cream of tartar by boiling it with carbonate 
of potassa. 

Properties. — Very soluble in water, and hence named Solu- 
ble Tartar. — Used in medicine. 

Tartrate of Potassa and Soda — (Rochelle Salt). — KO, 

NaO ; C 8 H 4 O lo + 10H O- 

Made, by boiling cream of tartar with carbonate of soda. 
Properties. — Large colorless crystals. — Soluble in water.— 
An ingredient in the Seidlitz powders. 

Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa (Tartar Emetic). — A 
bibasic salt. — Composition — KO,SbO 3 ,C 8 H 4 O 10 +2HO. 

Mode of manufacture and properties, already discussed 
under the head of Antimony. 

Effect of heat on tartaric acid is to convert it into pyrotarta- 
ric or pyrumic acid (C 6 H 3 5 ), and carbonic acid. 



EACEMIC ACID. 

Isomeric with tartaric acid. — Called also paratartaric acid. 
Origin. — Differs, how, from tartaric acid. 



MALIC ACID. 
Composition.— C 8 H 4 8 +3HO.— Tribasic. 



GALLIC ACID. 155 

Found in the apple, rhubarb stalk, &c. — Mode of procuring. 

Properties. — Crystalline, soluble in water. — Liability to de- 
compose. 

Action of heat, — to convert it into malleic and fumaric 
acids. 



TANNIC ACID. 

Composition. — C 18 H 5 9 +3HO. — Tribasic. 

A natural product in galls, oak bark, and many other 
vegetables. — Usually associated with gallic acid. 

Pelouze's method of procuring it from powdered galls, by 
means of ether. 

Properties. — Color. — Taste. — Solubility. — Two varieties of 
tannic acid. — Tannates. 

Test. — Gelatin, and salts of the peroxide of iron. 

Uses in the arts, and in medicine. 



GALLIC ACID. 

Composition — C 7 H0 3 +2HO. — Bibasic. 

Not so abundant in nature as tannic acid. 

Formed naturally, by the oxidizement of tannic acid. — Ra- 
tionale. 

Mode of forming artificially. 

Properties. — Astringent taste; but does not precipitate 
gelatin. 



156 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION XIII. 

Organic Salt Bases — Vegetable x\lkalies. 

Their importance in the vegetable kingdom. — Always occur 
associated with an acid, which itself is often quite peculiar. 

Found in the different parts of plants, — as the bark, leaves, 
seeds, root, and fruit. 

Their composition complex. — They generally contain nitro- 
gen. — They are all more or less poisonous ; though at the same 
time most valuable as medicines. They combine with acids, 
like the inorganic bases. They possess none of the other 
usual alkaline properties. 

General method of separating them in the free state. 

General properties.- — Usually crystalline. — Insolubility in 
water. — Solubility in alcohol.— Taste. — Solubility of their 
salts. 

The salts preferred for medical use. 

Morphia. — Cg-H^NOg. — The most important principle in 
opium, — Exists naturally in combination with rneconic acid. 
Mode of extracting. — Mode of separating from Narcotina. 
Salts most used, — the sulphate, acetate, and muriate. 
Tests. — Nitric acid; and a persalt of iron. 

Narcotina. — C 48 H 24 N0 15 . 

Mode of procuring. — Appearance. 



VEGETABLE ALKALIES. 157 

Supposed physiological properties. — Uses. 

Codeia. — C 35 H 20 NO 3 . — A principle of opium. — How sepa- 
rated. — Properties. 

Meconic Acid. — The peculiar acid principle found in opium. 
— It contains no nitrogen. 

Test. — The blood-red color given to a persalt of iron. — In 
testing for opium, in case of suspected poisoning, it is proper 
to search for the meconic acid, by the above test, 

Quinia — C 2o H l2 N0 2 . ) 
Cinchonia — C 20 H 13 NO. J 

The active principles of Peruvian bark. — Method of ex- 
tracting them. 

Mode of separating them from each other. 
Properties. — Comparative sol ubility. 

Sulphate of Quinia. — How made. — Chemically, a disul- 
phate. 

Properties. — Mode of increasing its solubility. — In compati- 
bles. 

Test. — A fresh solution of chlorine and liquor ammoniae 
yield a fine green color. — Also, acetic acid and tincture of 
iodine yield with it a green spangled appearance. 

Quinoidine. — C ls H 1;l NO. — Another principle more recently 
discovered in Peruvian bark. 

Aricina.— C 2o H 12 N0 3 . — An alkaloid, found in certain varie- 
ties of Cinchona barks. 

Strychnia. — C^H^NoOg. — The active "principle of Nux 
Vomica, St. Ignatius bean, &c, usually associated with brucia, 
and in combination with Igasuric acid. 

Mode of extraction. 

Properties. — Color. — Taste. — Solubility. — Poisonous effects. 
— Antidotes. 

14 



158 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Test. — The purple color produced by the action of the puce- 
oxide of lead, and a drop of sulphuric acid. Nitric acid does 
not afford a red color, if brucia is absent. 

Brucia. — C 44 H 25 N 2 7 . — Found in certain vegetables asso- 
ciated with strychnia, as an igasurate. — Mode of separation. 

Test. — -It affords a deep-red color, when touched with nitric 
acid. 

Yeratria. — C 34 H 22 N0 6 . — Where found in nature. — Proper- 
ties. — Uses. 

Coneia. — C 16 H 16 N. — The active alkaloid of Conium macu- 
1 at urn. 

Properties. — An oily liquid, having the reaction of the 
alkaloids generally. 

Nicotia. — C 10 H 8 N. — The active principle of tobacco. 
Properties. — An oily substance, exceedingly poisonous. 

Among the other alkaloid principles may be enumerated 
Emetia, Aconitia, Hyoscyamia, Atropia, Daturia^ Solania, 
&c. 

Besides the vegetable alkaloids, there are certain neutral 
principles, many of which constitute most important remedial 
agents. 

Thein and Caffein. — The active principles of tea and coffee. 
— Composition — C s lI 5 N a 2 . 

Mode of procuring. — Properties. 

Plperin, Asparagin, Picrotoxiriy Gentianin, Elaterin, Be- 
Levin, &c. 



OILS AND FATS. 159 



SECTION .XIV. 

Oils and Fats. 

Division into vegetable and animal oils. 

The vegetable fixed oils are procured chiefly by expression, 
from the seeds of plants ; and are hence named expressed oils. 

Examples: — Castor oil, linseed oil, poppy-seed oil. — Olive 
oil, from the fruit. 

They are generally liquid at ordinary temperatures. 

Exceptions. — Palm oil and oil of mace, which are solid. 

Animal oils are usually solid, and are named fats. 

Properties. — When perfectly pure, they are colorless, taste- 
less, and inodorous. — Their usual odor and taste depend on 
a volatile substance. — They leave a permanent, greasy stain 
on paper. — Boil at a temperature above 212°. — Decompose at 
600°. --Take fire at a higher temperature, generating water 
and carbonic acid. — By decomposition, they yield several hydro- 
carbons, — as in the manufacturing of oil gas. 

Insoluble in water, — but may be suspended in it, as in the 
case of emulsions, — Slightly soluble in alcohol. — Very soluble 
in ether, and in the volatile oils. — They have more or less 
attraction for oxygen. — Drying, and non-drying oils. 

Oils not strictly proximate principles, bat composed of seve- 
ral, — two of which, stearine and margarine, are solid, and 



169 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

one, oleine, is liquid at ordinary temperatures. — These princi- 
ples may be easily separated. 

Stearine — C 71 H 70 O 80 . — The solid portion of suet, and of 
animal fats generally, — except human fat. 

Obtained, by action of ether upon suet : — it is dissolved, and 
deposited in crystals. 

Properties, — Of a pearly aspect ; — fuses at 130°. — Used in 
the manufacture of candles. 

Margarine. — C 76 H 75 12 . — The solid principle of human fat, 
and of vegetable fixed oils. — -Exists also in animal fats. 

Procured, by action of boiling ether upon mutton-suet, which 
deposits the stearine. 

Properties. — Much resembles stearine. — Fuses at 116°. 

Oleine, or Elaine. — C S4 H S7 15 . — The fluid principle of all 
fats and oils. — May be partially separated by a low temperature, 
which congeals the other two constituents, — or by hot alcohol. 

Properties. — Colorless if pure. — Resembles common oil. — 
Freezes at 20° F. 

The true proximate composition of each of the above three 
principles, is an acid, named according to the substance — 
oleic, margaric, and stearic, — and a common base, glycerine. 
— Inference, that oils are true salts. — Effects of an alkali on 
oils. 

Stearic Acid.— G 6s R m 5 +2ILO. 

Obtained by saponifying suet with lime. — A stearate of 
lime is formed, which is decomposed by sulphuric acid. 

Properties. — A white, silky, flaky substance, insoluble in 
water. — Unites with bases. 

Margaric Acid.— C 63 H 66 6 +2HO. 

Obtained, by decomposing the margarate of lime by sulphu- 
ric acid. 



OILS AND FATS. 161 

Properties. — Very much resembles those of stearic acid. 

Oleic ^ci'd.— C 36 Hg 3 3 +HO. 

Obtained from the oleate of lead, by the action of ether. 

Properties. — A colorless liquid, solidifying below 54°; in- 
soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, and the essential 
oils. 

Chemical characters of Suet, Lard, Butter, Olive Oil, and 
Cod-liver Oil. 

Action of nitrous acid on olive oil, — is to convert it into 
elaidin, a principle which is saponifiable, and yields elaidic 
acid and glycerine. 

Glycerine — C 6 H 7 5 +HQ. — The liydrated oxide of lipyle. 
— : Best mode of procuring it. 

Properties. — Colorless ; — oily consistence ; — sweetish taste. 
— Medical uses. — Acrolein. 

The formula for the radical lipyle is C 3 H 2 . 

Origin of Oils and Fats. 

In vegetables, they are produced by the deoxidizement of 
the amylaceous bodies.— Examples : — the disappearance of 
fecula in the sun-flower seed, flaxseed, castor oil bean, &c, to 
be replaced by oil. 

In animals, a portion is derived from the food directly, and 
a portion manufactured by the animal. — Action of the liver 
in producing fat. 

Saponification. 

Its chemical nature.— Chemical composition of soap. — The 
soaps formed by the alkalies are soluble; — those formed by 
the earths and metallic oxides are insoluble. — The latter are 

termed plasters. 

IP 



162 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

The consistence of the alkaline soaps varies. — The potash 
soaps are soft ; — the soda soaps are hard. — Mode of converting 
a soft soap into a hard soap. 

Castile Soap — An oleo-margarate of soda. — Two varieties 
— the white and the mottled. 

Palm Soap — A palmitate of soda. 

Common Soap. — An oleo-stearate of soda. — Made from 
tallow and carbonate of soda. 

General Properties of Soaps. — Solubility in water and 
alcohol. — -Action of acids, earths, and metallic salts. — Action 
of hard water. — 'Mode of softening the water. 

Use of the tincture of soap as a test. 

Wax. — An animal secretion, and also a vegetable product. 
— Physical properties. 

Proximate Composition. — Contains two principles, — cerin y 
which is saponifiable, and yields margaric and oleic acids, and 
myrocin, which is not saponifiable. 

Use of wax in Pharmacy. 

Spermaceti. — A secretion in the head of a species of whale; 
— Physical properties. 

Chemical composition.— A neutral fatty body, of the nature 
of a compound ether — the cetylate of the oxide of cetyl. — 
By a difficult saponification, it is converted into cetylic alcohol 
(a crystalline fat), and cetylic or ethalic acid. 

The formula for the radical cetyl or ethal is ; 032^0,110. 

Pharmaceutical use of spermaceti. 



VOLATILE OILS. 163 



VOLATILE OILS. 

Naturally exists in different parts of certain plants. — Usu- 
ally procured by distillation with water. — Sometimes by ex- 
pression. 

They contain two proximate principles analogous to olein 
and stearine, and named elaoptine and stearoptine. 

They differ essentially from fixed oils : — in not being sapo- 
nifiable ;— in not leaving a permanent greasy stain on paper; 
— in being slightly soluble in water, — and in being volatilized 
at a temperature a little above 212°. 

A high heat decomposes them, as it does the fixed oils. 

Three classes of volatile oils : 

1. Those composed of carbon and hydrogen. — Examples : — 

Oil of Turpentine and Oil of Lemons. 

2. Those composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. — Exam- 

ples : — Oils of Anise, Mint, &c. 

3. Those containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphur. 

—Examples. — Oils of Horseradish , Mustard, and Garlic. 



164 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION XV. 

Besins, and Allied Bodies. 

General properties: — Solid; — brittle. — Fracture, smooth 
and shining. — Semitranslucent. — Insoluble in water. — Soluble 
in alcohol, ether, the fixed and volatile oils. — Without odor or 
taste, if perfectly pure. — Softened by heat, and ultimately 
take fire, depositing carbon in the form of lampblack. — 
Unite with alkalies, forming soaps. — Distilled in close vessels, 
they yield hydrocarbons, forming a brilliant gas for burning. 

Their origin in plants is to be traced to the oxidation of the 
volatile oils. 

Bemarks on Common Rosin, Lac, Masticli, Sandarach, 
Dragon's blood, Elemi, Damar, and Copal. 

Composition of a turpentine. 

Composition of a balsam. 

Composition of a gum-resin. — Examples. 

Caoutchouc or Gam Elastic. — The concrete juice of the 
Sypliilla elastica. 

Mode of obtaining.— Properties. — Effects of heat. — Best 
solvents. 

Effect of combining it with sulphur, or vulcanizing. 

Applications in the arts. 



RESINS, ETC. 165 

Guita Perclia. — The concrete juice of the Isonandra Gutta. 
— Analogous to caoutchouc in some particulars,— -but differs 
in others. 

Effect of heat. — Best solvents. 

Uses in the arts, and medicine. 



166 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 



SECTION XVI. 
Organic Coloring Matters. 

Their great importance in the art of dyeing — With the 
single exception of cochineal, they are all of vegetable origin. 

Distinction between substantive and adjective colors. — Na- 
ture and use of mordants. — Lakes. — Calico printing. 



BLUE COLORING PRINCIPLES. 

Indigo. — The product of several species of the genus Indi- 
go/era, growing in tropical countries. — Mode of procuring it. 
— Composition — C 26 H 5 N0 2 . 

Properties. — Solid ; — of an intensely deep-blue color. — In- 
soluble in water, alcohol, dilute acids, or alkalies. — Soluble in 
strong sulphuric acid. — Volatile by heat. — Sp. grav. 1*350. 

Action of deoxidizing agents — to convert it into vndigogene. 
— Nature of this substance. — Theory of dyeing with indigo. 

Numerous compounds resulting from the reaction of dif- 
ferent agents upon indigo. 

Litmus } Archil j and Cudbear. — Similar substances, differ- 



ORGANIC COLORING MATTERS. 167 

ing only in the details of their preparation. — Procured from 
various lichens, chiefly the Rocella tinctoria. — Their natural 
color is red ; but they become blue from the presence of an 
alkali, in their manufacture. 

Use of litmus to the chemist, as a test. — Mode of preparing 
test-papers. — Action of acids. 

Substances derived from litmus. 



RED COLORING PRINCIPLES. 

Cochineal. — Dried insects — the Coccus cacti — found in tro- 
pical countries. 

Properties.— Soluble in water and alcohol. — Form lakes with 
alumina, and oxide of tin. — Carmine. 

Its coloring principle, called carminic acid, has been sepa- 
rated. 

Madder. — The root of the Rubia tinctorium. — Grown in 
the south of France, and the Levant. 

Its most valuable coloring principles are alizarin and pur- 
pur in. 

Madder is employed for giving the Turkey-red color to cot- 
ton cloths. 

Brazil Wood. — Co3salpinia Sappan. — It contains an 
orange, crystalline solid, called Brazilein } C 36 H 14 14 . 

Logwood. — Hcematoxylon Campechianum. 

This affords a deep reddish-purple dye. — Its coloring prin- 
ciple — Tiamhatoxylin, is composed of C 40 H 17 O 15 +8HO ) — a solid 
crystalline body. — Acids brighten the color; and alkalies ren- 
der it darker. 



168 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Safflower. — The dried petals of the Carihamus tinctoria. 
— It derives its color from catharrnin, C 14 II 8 7 — a dark-red 
substance, insoluble in water, but soluble in alkalies. 

AJhanet. — The root of the Anchusa tinctoria. — It contains 
anehusic acid — a dark-red solid, insoluble in water. 

Lac. — The coloring matter of the resin lac; — prepared in 
India, from stick lac. 

Annotta. — Obtained from the seeds of the Bixa orellana. — 
An orange powder, insoluble in water. 

Its coloring principle — orellein, is red. — Used, chiefly, to 
give color to butter and cheese. 



YELLOW COLORING PRINCIPLES. 

Quercitron. — The bark of the Quercus tinctoria, or Black 
Oak. — It contains a yellow coloring principle — Quercitrinc. 

Fustic. — The wood of the Moms tinctoria. — Contains a 
yellow crystalline principle. — Morine. 

Turmeric. — The root of Curcuma longa. — It contains a 
yellow coloring principle — Curcumine. 

Use to the chemist as a test. — Action of alkalies ; — of mu- 
riatic and boracic acids. — Mode of preparing turmeric papers. 

Saffron. — The dried stigmas of the flowers of the Crocus 
sativus. — Contains a brilliant yellow coloring matter, named 
Polychroite. 

Sumach. — The young branches of Rhus coriaria. — It con- 
tains a bitter yellow principle named Fustine. 

Barberry. — The root and wood of the Berberis vulgaris and 
tinctoria. — It contains a peculiar yellow coloring matter — Ber- 
ber inc. 



PART IV. 

CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

Complex nature of the animal body. — Great variety of its 
component parts. — All may, however, be comprised under the 
two divisions of the organic and the inorganic constituents. 

I. The animal organic constituents include those which are 
peculiar to animals, and likewise some which are found in 
vegetables. They comprise the following : 

1. The Proteine Bodies : — Albumen, fibrine, caseine, &c. 

2. The Gelatinous Tissues : — Skin, membranes, bones, car- 
tilages, ligaments, &c. 

3. Fats (stearine, margarine, oleine), and oleophosphoric 
acid. 

4. Neurine, or nerve-substance. 

5. Peculiar principles found in muscular flesh, as creating 
creatinin, &c. 

6. The peculiar principles found in the urine, as urea, uric 
acid, &c. 

7. The peculiar principles found in bile. 

II. The animal inorganic constituents are not peculiar. — 
They comprise chiefly the sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides 
of potassium and sodium, — the phosphates of lime and mag- 
nesia, the carbonate of lime, silica, fluoride of calcium, iron, 
&c. 

The first division will now be examined in detail. 

15 



170 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 



SECTION I. 
The Proteine Group. 

This group includes Albumen, Fibrine, Caseine, the two 
Oxides (binoxide and tritoxide) of Proteine, Pepsine, 
Ptyaline, or Salivary Diastase, Crystalline, Globuline, and 
Pyine. 

Some of these principles exist both in vegetables and ani- 
mals. 

Their origin in plants. 

Great importance of the Proteine group. 

Theories in relation to the existence of Proteine in a sepa- 
rate state. 

The Proteine of Mulder, — how obtained. 

Properties. — Composition. — Chemical relations. — Charac- 
ters of the binoxide and tritoxide of Proteine. 



ALBUMEN. 



Exists in two forms — solid and liquid. — Found in what 
parts of animals and vegetables. 

Best types of liquid and solid Albumen. 
Two varieties : — ov-albumen and ser-albumen. 



CASEINE. 171 

Characters of Albumen. — Color. — Consistence. — Effect of 
heat. — Action of acids and alkalies. — Substances which coagu- 
late it. — Therapeutical deductions. 

Tests for albumen : — Heat, and nitric acid. 

Relations of albumen to animals. — Abnormal elimination of 
it ; in disease. 



FIBRINE. 



Exists in two forms — solid and fluid. 

Found chiefly in the blood, and muscles of animals ; — and 
in the juices, and other parts of plants, as gluten. 

Its spontaneous coagulation, its characteristic property.— 
Insolubility. 

Mode of procuring it from blood, and muscle. — Appearance. 

Proportion in healthy blood. — Increase of it in disease. — ■ 
Simon's doctrine as to its origin, in the animal economy. 

Mode of procuring vegetable fibrine or gluten. — Its appear- 
ance. — Consistence.- — Use in flour. — Nutritious qualities. 

Test for fibrine. 



CASEINE. 



The nitrogenized principle of milk, — constituting the curd. 
Found also in vegetables, as legumine. 
Obtained, by spontaneous, or artificial coagulation of milk. 
-Effect of rennet upon milk. 
Properties. — Color. — Solubility. — Chemical habitudes. 



172 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

Pepsine or G aster ase. — Found in the mucous membrane of 
the stomach. — Its action in the process of Digestion. — Nature 
of the gastric juice. 

Chemical reactions. — Mode of procuring. 

Pty aline, or Salivary Diastase. — Name. 
Mode of obtaining it in the separate state. 
Properties. — Its function in Digestion. 

Globuline. — A constituent of the red corpuscles of the 
blood, associated with hcematin. — Supposed origin. 

Crystalline. — Believed to be a mere modification of albu- 
men. — Found in the crystalline lens of the eye. 

Pyine, — The peculiar principle found in pus. — Characters 
to distinguish pus from mucus. 



THE GELATINE GROUP. 173 



SECTION II. 
The Gelatine Group. 

There are two varieties of gelatine, according to Mulder,— 
named Gelatine, or Glutin, and Chondrine. 

The former, procured from skins, membranes, bones, tendons, 
and fibro-cartilages. 

The latter (chondrine), from permanent cartilages, foetal 
bones, and fungous bones. 

Composition of gelatine.— C a3 H 10 N 2 O 5 . 

Composition of chondrine. — C 1S H 13 N 4 7 . 

Gelatine obtained by long boiling of the tissues which 
yield it. 

Varieties of commercial gelatine :—glue, size, isinglass, and 
the prepared gelatine of the shops. 

Gelatine not found in the animal fluids. 

Origin of it in the animal economy. 

Properties of gelatine. — Hard; semi-translucent. — Soluble 
in boiling water. — Solidifies on cooling. 

Action of tannic acid. 

Chemical distinctions between gelatine and chondrine. 

Glycocoll, or Gelatine Sugar. — C 4 H 5 N0 4 . 
Made, by boiling gelatine with a solution of potash; or by 
treating it with sulphuric acid. 

Also obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on hippuric 

15* 



174 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

acid, which is thereby converted into benzoic acid and gly- 
cocoll. 

Properties. — A white, crystalline, sweet substance, — soluble 
in water and alcohol ; — does not undergo fermentation. 

Probable disposition of Glycocoll in the animal economy. 



THE ANIMAL SOLIDS. 175 



SECTION III. 

The Animal Solids. 

The solids which form the various organs of the body, con- 
stitute the apparatus in which are performed all the pheno- 
mena of life. — They comprise bones, teeth, cartilages, liga- 
ments, tendons, corneous tissue, shin, membranes, muscular 
flesh, fats, and cerebral substance. 

Bones. — These constitute the framework, or skeleton. — 
They are composed of two distinct portions : (1.) The organic, 
consisting of gelatine; — (2.) The inorganic, consisting chiefly 
of carbonate and phosphate of lime. 

Relative proportion of these two. — Mode of removing the 
earthy matter. — Mode of removing the animal matter. 

Product of the carbonization of bones. 

The composition of bones varies according to the age. 

Analysis of bones. 

Teeth. — These do not differ in composition, essentially, from 
bones. — They consist of three parts : (1.) Dentine or ivory; — 
(2.) Enamel; — (3.) Cementum. 

Analysis of dentine. — Contains much more mineral ingre- 
dients than bone. 

Composition of enamel.— Its great hardness and density. 



176 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

Cartilages. — Where found in the animal body. — Their 
function. 

Chemical composition. — Chiefly consist of gelatine, or chon- 
drine. 

Corneous Tissue. — This comprises horns, nails, claws and 
hoofs, human hair, nails, and feathers. These all, nearly 
identical in composition, — and consist essentially of gelatine. 

Comparison of the analyses of the horns of the cow, and 
human nails. 

Shin and Membranes. — These are composed essentially of 
gelatine, associated with fat, bloodvessels, &c. 
Effect of drying ; — of boiling. 
Explanation of the process of tanning. 

Muscular Flesh. — A very complex tissue, consisting of 
fibrine, albumen, fat, bloodvessels and nerves, creatine, crea- 
tinine, and inosinic acid. 

Effect of desiccation, on flesh. 

Nature of the salts contained in it. 

Result of exhausting muscular flesh in cold water. — Effect 
of boiling. 

Creatine.— C 8 H g N 3 4 +2HO. 

Mode of procuring it from fresh meat. 

Properties. — Crystalline. — Soluble in hot water; slightly so 
in cold water. — Neutral in its reaction. — Action of strong 
acids. — Action of strong alkalies. 

Creatinine. — C 8 H 7 N 3 2 . — Obtained from Creatine by the 
action of strong acids. 

Properties. — Strongly alkaline, — like ammonia. 

Sareosine. — C 6 H 7 N0 4 . — Production. 



THE ANIMAL SOLIDS. 177 

Inosinic Acid. — C 10 H 6 N 2 O 10 + HO. 
Mode of procuring it. — Crystalline. 

Views of Liebig and others, in relation to the production, 
and physiological functions performed by these bodies. 

The Fats. — These have already been treated of (p. 159). 

Cerebral Substance (Neuririe). — Two kinds — the white and 
the gray. 

Different positions with respect to each other. — Different 
offices. 

Fremy's analysis. 

Cerebric Acid. — Properties. — White. — Crystalline. — Solu- 
ble in boiling alcohol. 

Differs from common fats, in containing phosphorus and ni- 
trogen. — A very feeble acid. 

Oleo-phosphoric Acid. — Obtained by the action of cold 
ether. 

Properties. — An oily fluid, of a yellow color; — insoluble in 
cold water. — Saponifiable. 

Effect of boiling in water. — Proneness to decomposition. 

Quantity of phosphorus in the human brain. 

Deficiency of phosphorus in the brains of idiots. 



178 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 



SECTION IV. 
The Animal Fluids. 

These comprise the blood, cliyle, lymph, salivary and pan- 
creatic fluids, milk, bile, and urine. 

Most of them are discussed at length in the department of 
Physiology. A few only will be noticed here. 



THE URINE. 

Its secretion described. — Composed of two distinct portions 
— the liquid, which is water, and the various solids held in 
solution by the liquid. 

Physiology of the secretion of these two portions. 

Properties of healthy urine : — Color. — Average sp. grav. 
1015 to 1020 (Prout). — The sp. gravity varies at different 
periods of the day. — Usually acid when first voided — becoming 
alkaline on standing. 

Whole quantity voided in twenty-four hours. — Quantity of 
solid matter passed in twenty-four hours. 

Sources of the urine : 1. The water taken in by drinking; 
— 2. The non-assimilated food; — 3. The disintegration of 
nitrogenized tissues. 



URINE. 179 

Dr. Golding Bird's analysis of urine. 
Deposits from the urine on standing. 

Urea.— C,H 4 N 2 G 2 . 

The most important of the solid constituents of the urine. 

Properties. — Colorless. — Four-sided prisms. — Very soluble 
in water, — less so in alcohol. — Taste, saline and cooling. — Neu- 
tral to test paper, but unites with acids. 

Proportion in healthy urine, 12 to 30 parts in 1000 (ave- 
rage, 15). 

Its presence in urine is shown by evaporating it to one-third 
its bulk, and then adding nitric acid, which converts it into a 
bulky nitrate of urea. 

Obtained pure, from urine, by first evaporating it, and then 
adding oxalic acid ; and decomposing the oxalate by chalk. 

Made artificially (as the cyanate of ammonia), by decom- 
posing cyanate of potassa by sulphate of ammonia ; evapora- 
ting to dryness, and adding strong alcohol, which dissolves out 
the urea. 

The whole quantity secreted in twenty-four hours estimated 
at 270 to 430 grains. 

This variation of quantity due to several causes, — as age, sex, 
diet, and exercise. — Results of Prof. Lehman's experiments. 

Detected in the blood. — Physiological origin. 

Effects of accumulation in the blood. 

May be suspected to be in excess in the urine, if its 
sp. gravity exceeds 1030. 

Spontaneous change of urea into carbonate of ammonia — 
C 2 H 4 N 2 2 + 2HO = 2(NH 3 +C0 2 ).— This conversion some- 
times occurs (in disease) before the urine has been voided 
from the bladder. 

Properties, and microscopic appearance of the nitrate of 
urea. 



180 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

Uric Acid. — Lithic Acid. — C 10 H 4 N 4 O 6 . 

Very small quantity naturally found in healthy urine, — from 
0-3 to 1 part, only, in 1000. In birds and serpents, it consti- 
tutes nearly the whole of the solid portion of the urine. 

Generally combined with ammonia, in healthy urine. 

Properties. — Fine, sandy, crystalline grains. — Very insoluble 
in water. — Soluble in alkaline solutions.- — Microscopic appear- 
ance. 

Tts presence shown, if in excess, by adding nitric acid, and 
evaporating by a gentle heat; — a red spot is formed, which 
becomes purple by adding liquor amnion ise. — (Gr. Bird.) 

The whole quantity of uric acid voided in twenty-four hours, 
is estimated at 8 to 10 grains, — but liable to variations, as in 
the case of urea, — and from similar causes. 

It increases in certain diseases. 

Physiological relation between uric acid and urea. — For- 
mulae. 

Hippuric Acid.— C 18 H 8 N0 5 +HO. 

Name. — Exists in large quantities in the urine of the horse, 
and other herbivorous animals. 

A normal constituent of human urine. 

Its presence, — how best shown. 

Properties. — Friable, tufted crystals. — Sparingly soluble in 
cold water; more so in hot water; and very soluble in alcohol 
and ether. — Heat converts it into benzoic acid and benzoate 
of ammonia, together with an oily matter. 

Conversion of benzoic acid into hippuric acid, in passing 
through the animal system. 

Dr. Prout's error, concerning the use of benzoic acid in 
lithiasis. 

Great amount of carbon in hippuric acid (64 parts in 100). 
— Its probable function. 



URINE. 181 

Lactic Acid. — Supposed by some to be a normal constituent 
of the urine, — but very doubtful. 

Butyric Acid, also, said to be sometimes found. — Probable 
origin. 

Vesical Mucus and Epithelium Scales faintly appear in 
healthy urine. 

Origin. — Microscopic appearance. 

Extractive Matters. — Include all the uncrystallizable organic 
matters found in the residue of evaporated urine. 

They comprise Creatine, Creatinine, and Yellow Coloring- 
matter. 

Normal quantity, — 7 to 12 parts in 1000. 

Physiological relations of Creatine and Creatinine. 

Nature of the coloring matter. — Simon's views. 

Large amount of carbon contained. 

Mode of showing the coloring matter. 

Sulphur-Extractive. — Sources. — Amount of unoxidized 
sulphur voided in 24 hours — from 3 to 5 grains. 

Fixed Salts. — Obtained by incinerating the evaporated 
residue of urine. 

They are composed of a mixture of alkaline and earthy 
salts,— together amounting to about 138 grains in 24 hours. 

Separated by boiling water, which dissolves out the alkaline 
salts. 

The Alkaline Salts.— -Their composition. 

Normal quantity, — 13 to 14 parts in 1000. — Microscopic 
appearance. 

Tests : (a) For the chlorine and phosphoric acid, (b) For 
the sulphuric acid, (c) For potash, (d) For soda. 

The Earthy Salts. — Their composition. 
Normal quantity, — 1 part in 1000. — How kept in solution. 

16 



182 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 

Effect of adding ammonia to healthy urine. — Nature of the 
precipitate. 

Microscopic characters of the triple phosphate. 

Test for the earthy phosphates, when in the urine in excess. 
— How distinguished from albumen. 

Origin of the fixed salts in the urine. — Probable use of the 
chloride of sodium. 



URINE. 183 



SECTION V. 
The Urine in Disease. 

Value of the urine as a means of diagnosis. 

Two kinds of morbid changes: — (1.) When there is merely 
an excess, or diminution of some natural ingredient. — (2.) 
When there is one or more abnormal ingredient. 

Mode of proceeding. — Test-paper. — Specific gravity. — De- 
cantation of clear liquid. 

I. Examination of the deposits : 

The deposits are most likely to consist of earthy phosphates, 
— uric acid, — urate of ammonia, — and oxalate of lime. 

Tests: — for urate of ammonia;* — for phosphates ; — for uric 
acid; — for oxalate of lime; — for pus; — for mucus; — for 
Mood ; — for cystine; — for urate of soda; — for fatty matter; 
— for chyle; — for spermatozoa. 

II. Examination of the clear liquor : 

Test for acidity. — Take specific gravity. — Inference, if it 
exceed 1025. 

Urea in excess, tested for. 

Sugar. — Tests for. — Quantity estimated. 

Albumen tested for. 

Earthy phosphates recognized. 

Uric and hippuric acids tested for. 

Bile.— Pettehkoffer's text. 



184 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 



SECTION VI. 

Urinary Calculi. 

Their general composition. — Mode of formation. — Nuclei. 
— Seldom composed of a single ingredient. 
Mode of analysis. 

I. Uric or Lithic Acid Calculus. — One of the most com- 
mon forms of stone. 

Characters. — Smooth, or slightly warty, — hard ; — concentric, 
— yellowish-brown. 

Tests : — Burns before the blowpipe, exhaling an ammoniacal 
odor. — The murexed test. — Soluble in a solution of potash, 
from which it is precipitated by an acid. — The microscope. 

The lateritious deposits of fever, rheumatism, gout, &c. — 
usually composed of uric acid and urate of ammonia. 

II. Urate of Ammonia. — Seldom occurs alone; — generally 
alternating with uric acid, or the earthy phosphates. 

Characters. — Small, smooth, or slightly tuberculated. — 
Color, — pale slate, or brown. 

Tests : — Soluble in hot water. — Decomposed by dilute acids. 
—-Decrepitates before blowpipe. — Soluble in a hot solution of 
potash, with evolution of ammonia. 

A frequent ingredient of the lateritious deposits. 



URINARY CALCULI. 185 

III. Phosphate of lime. 

Characters. — Smooth, or even polished, on the surface. — 
Composed of concentric laminae, very easily separated. — Color, 
fawn, or stone. 

Tests. — Chars before blowpipe. — Is nearly infusible. — Solu- 
ble in dilute acids. — Phosphoric acid tested by nitrate of 
silver. — Lime tested by oxalate of ammonia. 

IV. Ammonio-Magnesian Phosphate (triple phosphate). 
— Very common as one of the ingredients of a calculus. 

Characters. — Nearly colorless. — Surface rough, or covered 
with small shining crystals. 

Tests : Charred by blowpipe, exhaling an ammoniacal odor. 
— Soluble in dilute acids. — Heated in a solution of potash, it 
gives off ammonia, and precipitates magnesia. 

V. Fusible Calculus. — -A mixture of the two last described. 
— The most common ingredient, next to uric acid. 

Characters. — Often of a large size. — Soft. — White.— Chalky 
and friable. 

Tests : Fuses before blowpipe into a bead. — Soluble in dilute 
acids. — The presence of lime shown. 

VI. Mulberry Calculus (oxalate of lime). — Sometimes 
entire ; again, with a nucleus of uric acid. 

Characters. — Very dark color, brown or dirty purple. — Ir- 
regular, jagged surface. — Appearance when sawn. 

Tests : Insoluble in acetic acid. — Soluble in dilute nitric 
and chlorohydric acids. — Blowpipe at first blackens, and then 
converts it into carbonate of lime, which is easily recognized. 

The Cystic Oxide and Xanthic Oxide, — are very rare forms 
of calculi. 

The Urate of Lime is occasionally met with. 

16* 



186 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. 



BILIARY CALCULI — GALL-STONES. 

Found in the gall-bladder. — Often very numerous. 

Characters. — Brownish or yellow color. — Soft and soapy to 
the touch. — Easily crushed. — Of a crystalline texture. — Form 
very irregular. 

Composition. 

Chdle&terine. — C 26 H 32 0. — Mode of obtaining it from gall- 
stones. — Properties. — Not saponifiable. 



MILK, BJLE, AND BLOOD. 187 



SECTION VII. 
Milk, Bile, and Blood. 

Milk. — "An emulsion of fat in water, holding caseine, 
sugar, and salts in solution/ ' 

Homogeneous appearance to the naked eye. — Microscopic 
appearance. 

Oil globules of Donne. — Cream. 

Alkalinity due to. — Its effect on the caseine. — Effect of 
churning. 

Composition of the oily matter. 

Composition of the salts. — Similar to those of the blood. 

Spontaneous coagulation of milk due to. 

Composition of lohey. 

Comparison between the milk of the cow, goat, and human 
female. 

The amount of oily matter and of caseine, much influenced 
by exercise. 

Microscopic appearance of diseased milk.— Colostrum. 

Other morbid ingredients found in milk. 

Use of the lactometer. 

Adulteration of milk. 



188 CHEMISTRY OE THE ANIMAL BODY. 

Bile. — Appearance in the ordinary state. 

Obtained pure, by first evaporating to dryness at 212°, then 
dissolving in alcohol, which leaves behind the mucus. The 
solution contains coloring matter and cholesterine. Animal 
charcoal removes the former, and ether the latter. 

Characters of pure bile. — A yellowish, solid, brittle mass, 
— soluble in water and alcohol. 

Strecker's analysis shows it to be composed essentially of a 
mixture of two peculiar acids (the cholic or glyco-cholalic^ and 
the choleic or tauro-cholalic), united with soda. 

Composition of glyco-cholalic acid — C s2 H 42 NO ai ,HO. 

Composition of tauro-cholalic acid — C 52 H 4i NS 2 13 ,HO. 

Tests for bile. 

The consideration of the Blood is referred to Physiology. 



CHEMISTRY OF VEGETABLE LIFE. 189 



SECTION VIII. 
Chemistry of Vegetable Life. 

Food of Plants. 

1. The soil. — Its composition; — A mixture of silica, alu- 
mina, lime, magnesia, organic matters, oxide of iron, with 
small quantities of phosphates, sulphates, carbonates, nitrates, 
and chlorides. — Its mechanical structure varies very much, 
and materially influences its nature. 

2. The air. — The ingredients used by plants are, carbonic 
acid, ammonia, and moisture. — Importance of the carbonic 
acid. 

Growth of Plants. 

Germination. — Development of the seed, when placed under 
favorable circumstances. 

Conditions necessary to germination, — temperature, moisture, 
and oxygen. 

Chemical changes produced. 

Appearance of diastase. — Its importance. 

Change of starch into dextrine and glucose. 

Further development of the Plant. — Importance of light. — 
Action of the green cells upon the carbonic acid of the air. — 
Production of the nitrogenized principles — vegetable albumen, 
glutin, and legnmin. 



190 CHEMISTRY OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

Production, and deposition of the oils and resins. 

Isomerism of most of the proximate materials of plants. 

Elimination of oxygen during the growth of plants. 

Changes involved at the period of forming and ripening of 
the seed. 

Changes occurring at the death of the plant. — Its erema- 
causis, or slow oxidation. — Products. 

Exhaustion of soils by successive growth of the same crops. 
— Importance of a rotation of crops. — Composition and use of 
manures. 



Chemistry of Animal Life. 

Composition of Animals. 

1. Solids. — Comprising Bone, composed of phosphate and 
carbonate of lime, with gelatine and oily matter. — Carti- 
lage, consisting of gelatine, with a little phosphate of lime. — 
Muscle, chiefly of fibrine. — Skin and membranes, essentially 
composed of gelatine. — Nerve-substance, chiefly of albumen 
and oily matter (fat acids). — Ligaments and tendons, chiefly 
gelatine. — Fats, consisting of oleine, margarine, and stearine. 

2. Liquids. — Comprising blood, composed of water, albu- 
men, fibrine, various salines, globulin, and hgematin. — Chyle, 
consisting of water, albumen, fibrine, and salines. — Lymph, 
very similar, in composition, to chyle. 

Animal Secretions. 

Milk, — containing water, oily matter, caseine, sugar, and 
saline matters. 



CHEMISTRY OF ANIMAL LIFE. 191 

Saliva — composed of water, salts, traces of mucus, and 
organic matters. 

Bile — composed of water, cholate and clioleate of soda, 
resin, mucus, and salines. 

Urine — consisting of water, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, 
and various salts of potash, soda, magnesia, and lime, together 
with some organic principles. 

Other lesser secretions. 

Chemical Processes of Life. 

Respiration. — Its object to introduce oxygen into the blood, 
and to eliminate carbonic acid, by the action of the lungs. 

Digestion. — A species of fermentation. — Influence of 
ptyalin and pepsin. — Action of the gastric juice ; of the bile. 
— Progress of the chyle. 

Calorification. — Union of the oxygen inspired, with the 
hydrogen, carbon, and other combustibles of the food and the 

tissues. 

Secretion.— This is often merely the separation of matters 
already formed, from the blood ; but sometimes it is a true 
chemical process, performed by the secerning gland. 



INDEX. 



ACETAL, 141. 

Acetone, 141. 
Acetyle, 140. 
Acid, acetic, 141, 152. 

aconitic, 153. 

aldehydic, 141. 

arsenic, 111. 

arsenious, 111. 

antimonic, 109. 

an tim onions, 109. 

benzoic, 149. 

boracic, 63. 

bromic, 61. 

butyric, 136, 181. 

carbonic, 51. 

carminic, 167. 

catharmic, 168. 

chloric, 61. 

chlorous, 60. 

choleic, 188. 

chromic, 107. 

citric, 153. 

cyanic, 55. 

cyanuric, 55. 

ferric, 92. 

fluoboric, 63. 

fluosilicic, 63. 

formic, 145. 

fulminic, 56. 

gallic, 155. 



Acid, hippuric, 180. 
hydriodic, 60. 
hydrobromic, 60. 
hydrochloric, 59. 
hydrocyanic, 56. 
hydrofluoric, 62. 
hypochloric, 61. 
hypoehlorous, 60. 
hyponitrous, 42. 
hypophosphorous, 49. 
hyposulphurous, 45. 
hyposulphuric, 46. 
iodic, 61. 
lactic, 136, 181. 
lithic, 180. 
malic, 154. 
margaric, 160. 
meconic, 157. 
metaphosphoric, 49. 
mucic, 132. 
muriatic, 59. 
nitric, 42. 
nitrous, 42. 
oleic, 161. 
osmic, 123. 
oxalic, 52, 132. 
periodic, 61. 
phosphoric, 49. 
phosphorous, 49. 
prussic, 56. 



17 



194 



INDEX. 



Acid, pyroligneous, 141. 

pyrotartaric, 154. 

racemic, 154. 

salicylic, 151. 

salicylous, 151. 

suberic, 133. 

sulphomethylic, 144. 

sulphovinic, 139. 

sulphuric, 45. 

sulphurous, 45. 

tannic, 155. 

tartaric, 153. 

uric, 180. 

valerianic, 148. 
Air (atmospheric), 16, 40. 
Albumen, 170. 
Alcohol, 135. 
Aldehyde, 141. 
Alizarine, 167. 
Alkalimetry, 76. 
Alkaloids, 156. 
Alkanet, 168. 
Alkarsin, 142. 
Alum, 88. 
Alumina, 87. 
Aluminium, 87. 
Amalgams, 114. 
Amidogen, 44. 
Ammonia, 43. 
Ammonium, 44, 79. 
Amyle, 147. 
Annotta, 168. 
Antimony, 109. 

butter of, 110. 
salts of, 110. 
Aqua regia, 60. 
Arabin, 128. 
Archil, 166. 
Arsenic, 111. 
Asparagin, 158. 
Attraction, 14. 
Azote, 40. 



Balsams, 150, 164. 
Barberry, 168. 
Barilla, 75. 



Barium, 81. 
Barometer, 17. 
Baryta, 81. 
Bell metal, 96. 
Benzoile, 149. 
Berberine, 168. 
Bile, 188. 
Bismuth, 101. 

salts of, 101. 
Bleaching salts, 84. 
Bones, 175. 
Borax, 63, 78. 
Boron, 63. 
Brazileine, 167. 
Brass, 96. 
Brazil wood, 167. 
Brimstone, 44. 
Bromoform, 145. 
Bronze, 96. 
Brucia, 158. 

Cadmium, 98. 
Caffeine, 158. 
Calamine, 97. 
Calcium, 83. 
Calomel, 116. 
Caloric, 19. 
Caoutchouc, 164. 
Capillarity, 14. 
Carbon, 50. 
Caramel, 129. 
Carmine, 167. 
Caseine, 171, 187. 
Cerium, 88. 
Cereuse, 99. 
Charcoal, 50. 
Chlorine, 57. 
Chloroform, 145. 
Chondrine, 173. 
Chromium, 106. 
Cinchonia, 157. 
Cinnabar, 114, 117. 
Circulation of heat, 21. 
Clay, 87, 88. 
Cobalt, 102. 
Coccus, 167. 
Cochineal, 167. 



INDEX. 



195 



Codeia, 157. 
Coffee, 158. 

Conduction of heat, 21. 
Coneia, 158. 
Convection of heat, 21. 
Copal, 164. 
Copper, 94. 
Copperas, 92. 
Corrosive sublimate, 116. 
Creasote, 145. 
Cudbear, 166. 
Cupellation, 118. 
Cyanogen, 55. 

Da mar, 164. 
Dextrin, 129. 
Diamond, 50. 
Diastase, 129, 189. 

salivary, 172. 
Didymium, 88. 
Dolomite, 85. 
Drummond light, 39. 

Electricity, 28. 

animal, 33. 
Electro-magnetism, 32. 
Elemi, 164. 
Endosmose, 15. 
Enamel, 175. 
Epsom salt, 85. 
Erbium, 88. 
Ethal, 162. 
Ethers, 138. 
Ethyle, 137. 
Eupione, 146. 
Expansion by heat, 19. 

Fecula, 128. 
Feldspar, 87, 88. 
Fermentation, 134. 
Ferricyanogen, 93. 
Ferrocyanogen, 93. 
Fibrine, 171. 
Flowers of antimony, 109. 

of zinc, 97. 
Fluorine, 62. 



Fluor spar, 62, 84. 
Formyle, 144. 
Fusible metal, 20, 101. 
Fustic, 168. 

Galena, 98, 100. 

Gelatine, 173. 

Germination, 189. 

Glass, 74. 

Glauber's salt, 76. 

Glucina, 88. 

Glucinum, 88. 

Glucose, 130. 

Glue, 178. 

Gluten, 171. 

Glutin, 173. 
Glycerine, 161. 
Glycocoll, 178, 
Gold, 120. 

Goulard's extract, 100. 
Gum, 128. 
Gum-resins, 104. 
Gun cotton, 131. 
Gutta percha, 165. 
Gypsum, 83. 

ELematine, 172. 
Hematoxylin, 167. 
Heavy spar, 81. 
Hydrargyrum, 119. 
Hydrogen, 38. 

arseniuretted, 112. 

Indigo, 166. . 
Indigogene, 166. 
Ink, sympathetic, 102. 
Iodine, 58. 
Iodoform, 145. 
Iridium, 122. 
Iron, 91. 



Kalium, 71. 
Kakodyle, 142. 
Kapnomor, 146. 
Kelp, 75. 

Lac, 164, 168, 



196 



INDEX. 



Lactine, 130. 
Lanthanum, 88. 
Latent heat, 22. 
Laws of Combination, 35. 
Lead, 98. 
Leather, 176. 
Legumine, 171. 
Lichens, 167. 
Light, 26. 
Lignin, 130. 
Lime, 83. 
Litmus, 166. 
Litharge, 99. 
Lithium, 79. 
Logwood, 167. 
Lunar caustic, 119. 

Madder, 167. 
Magnetism, 27. 
Magnesia, 85. 
Magnesite, 85. 
Magnesium, 84. 
Malachite, 95. 
Manganese, 89. 
Manures, 190. 
Marble, 83. 
Margarine, 160. 
Mastich, 164. 
Massicot, 99. 
Mercury, 119. 

fulminating, 56. 
Methyle, 143. 
Methylic alcohol. 143. 
Minium, 99. 
Molybdenum, 108. 
Morine, 168. 
Morphia, 156. 
Mortars, 83. 
Murexide, 180, 184. 

Naphtha, 143. 
Narcotina, 156. 
Natrium, 75. 
Neurine, 177. 
Nickel, 103. 
Niobium, 108. 
Nitric oxide, 41. 



Nitrogen, 40. 
Nitrous oxide, 41. 
Nux vomica, 157. 

Oak bark, 168. 
Oils, fixed, 159. 

volatile, 163. 
Olefiant gas, 53, 139. 
Oleine, 160. 
Opium, 156. 
Orpiment, 112. 
Orelleine, 168. 
Osmium, 123. 
Ox amide, 133. 
Oxygen, 37. 
Oxygenated water, 40. 

Palladium, 122. 
Paracyanogen, 55. 
Paraffine, 146. 
Pearlash, 72. 
Pectin, 129. 
Pelopium, 108. 
Pepsine, 172, 191. 
Pewter, 105. 
Phosphorus, 48. 
Picamar, 146. 
Platinum, 121. 
Plumbago, 50. 
Plumbum, 98. 
Polychroite, 168. 
Potassa, 71. 
Potassium, 71. 
Pottery, 88. 
Proteine, 170. 
Prussian blue, 93. 
Purple of Cassius, 106, 121. 
Putty, jewellers', 106. 
Pyrites, iron, 93. 

copper, 94. 
Pyroxylic spirit, 143. 

QUERCITRINE, 168. 

Quercitron, 168. 
Quinia, 157. 
Quinoidine, 157. 



INDEX. 



197 



Radiation of heat, 21. 
Realgar, 112. 
Resins, 164, 
Respiration, 191. 
Rhodium, 122. 
Rust of iron, 91. 
Ruthenium, 123. 

Safflower, 168. 
Saffron, 168. 
Sal ammoniac, 80. 
Salicine, 151. 
Salicyle, 151. 
Salt, common, 78. 
of tartar, 72. 
Saltpetre, 73. 
Sandarach, 164. 
Scheele's green, 96, 112. 
Selenium, 47. 
Selenite, 83. 
Silex, 63. 
Silica, 63. 
Silicium, 63. 
Silver, 118. 

fulminating, 56, 119. 
Smalt, 102. 
Soap, 161. 
Soda, 75. 
Sodium, 75. 
Solder, 100. 
Specific gravity, 13. 
Specular iron ore, 91. 
Speculum, 26. 
Spermaceti, 162. 
Spirits of wine, 135. 
Stannum, 105. 
Starch, 128. 
Stearine, 160. 
Steel, 93. 
Stibium, 109. 
Strontia, 82. 
Strontianite, 82. 
Strontium, 82. 
Strychnia, 157. 
Sugar, 129. 

cane, 129. 



Sugar, grape, 130. 
of milk, 130. 
of lead, 100. 
Sulphur, 44. 

flowers of, 44. 
liver of, 74. 

Tannic acid, 155. 
Tantalum, 108. 
Tar, 53, 145. 
Tartar emetic, 110, 154. 
Teeth, 175. 
Terbium, 88. 
Theine, 158. 
Thermometer, 20. 
Thorium, 88. 
Tin, 105. 
Titanium, 108. 
Tungsten, 108. 
Turpentine, 164. 
Turnbull's blue, 94. 
Turpeth mineral, 116. 
Type-metal, 109. 

Ubanite, 104. 
Uranium, 104. 
Urea, 179. 
Uric acid, 180. 
Urine, healthy, 178. 
diseased, 183. 
Urinary calculi, 184. 

Vanadium, 108. 
Varvacite, 90. 
Vaporization, 23. 
Veratria, 158. 
Verditer, 95. 
Vermilion, 117. 
Vinegar, 141. 
Vitriol, blue, 95. 

green, 92. 

oil of, 45. 

white, 97. 

Wax, 162. 



198 



Water, 39. 

Welding property, 64. 

Woodashes, 72. 

Xyloidine, 131. 



INDEX. 



Y 



Yttrium, 88. 

Zaffre, 102. 
Zinc, 96. 
Zirconium, 88 



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